Wilson watson g (15 Ergebnisse)
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hardcover. Zustand: Very Good. May have light to moderate shelf wear and/or a remainder mark. Complete. Clean pages.
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Paperback. Zustand: Brand New. 1st edition. 166 pages. 8.35x5.51x0.55 inches. In Stock.
Verlag: Bone Hill, Chiswell Green, St. Albans, Hertfordshire, England : The National Rose Society of Great Britain, 1961., 1961
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In den WarenkorbHardcover. Zustand: Good. 207 pp ; photographs in black & white and in color ; 25 cm. ; green textured cloth with gold lettering and decorations ; several photographs of important hybridizers and rose growers, and several color plates of new roses for 1961, including Super Star, Daily Sketch, Mischief, Stella, Lucy Cramphorn, Sa…brina, Memoriam, Dearest, Fritz Thiedemann, Lilac Cream, Miss Ireland, Orange Sensation and Pink Parfait ; numerous interesting and important articles on rose growing ; Contents : Patrons, Officers And Council -- Arrangements For 1961 -- Report Of The Council -- Balance Sheets -- Presidents And Awards -- The President's Page, By F. Royalton Kisch, M.C., President -- A Great Venture, By F. Fairbrother, M.Sc., F.R.I.C. -- Recent Research On Roses, By E. F. Allen -- The Rose Garden Of Rome, By Stelvio Coggiatti -- The Late Charles Mallerin, By André Leroy, Louis Laperrière And M. Perroud -- Looking At Roses, By Constancewheatcroft -- Rose Arrangements, By Ena Harkness -- Book Review, By F. Fairbrother, M.Sc., F.R.I.C. -- My Grandmother's Roses, By Arbel. M. Aldous -- Rose Culture In The Tropics, By Rev. P. Soares -- The Local Incidence Of Rose Disease, By A. Dick, B.Sc., M.D.,J. Clarke, Lieut.-Col. D. Pope, F. H. Morse -- Lessons From Derriaghy, By Sam McGredy -- Red Roses, By C. Walter Gregory -- The "Floiuade" At Rotterdam 1960, By A. P. C. Dickson -- Common Mistakes In Rose Growing, By R. L. Pallett -- The Yellow Roses, By Bertram Park, O.B.E., V.M.H., Mtrite Agri -- The Unorthodox Rose Grower, By F. C. H. Witchell -- By The Way, By W. J. W. Sanday -- Fifty Years Of The Rose Annual, By A. Norman -- Garden View, By J. H. Wilding -- A Modern Approach To Rose Deterioration And Disease, By Aphra P. Wilson, M.B.E., A.R.C.S. -- "Overhead Watering Prevents Black Spot?" By Roy Hay -- Whose Roses? From A Correspondent Of The Times -- Display Gardens, By Sir Harry Pilkington . -- What's In A Name? By W. C. Thom -- Special Encouragement For Amateur Hybridists, By Edgar M. Allen, C.M.G. -- Highlights In A Veteran Rose Grower's Life, By Edgar M. Allen, C.M.G. -- An Itinerant 'Frau Karl Druschki', By Mrs. F. M. Briscoe -- Roses Which Deserve Greater Recognition, By Rosemary James -- Plant Breeders' Rights, By Gordon Edwards, C.B.E. -- The Spring Competition, By A. J. Huxley -- The Great Summer Rose Show, By A. G. L. Hellyer -- The Artistic Classes, By Julia Clements -- Bristol Group's Annual Show -- Northern Rose Show, By Mr. And Mrs. Joseph C. Watson -- The Great Autumn Rose Show, By Gordon Forsyth -- The Trial Ground, By H. Edland -- Show Awards And Trial Ground Awards 1960 -- International Awards 1960 -- The Rose Analysis, By H. Edland -- Monochrome Plates -- The President -- New Headquarters Of The National Rose Society, Bone Hill, Chiswell Green, St. Albans, Hertfordshire -- Royal Lodge, Windsor -- The Municipal Rose Gardens, Rome -- The Late Charles Mallerin -- The Silver Plate And Spoons -- The Poulsen "Family" -- Alain And Michke Meilland -- "Just Don't Get Him Started Talking About His Roses" -- 'Vanity' -- Colour Plates -- Super Star -- Daily Sketch -- Mischief -- Gold Crown -- Golden Giant -- Stella -- Lucy Cramphorn -- Sabrina -- Memoriam -- Dearest -- Fritz Thiedemann -- Lilac Charm -- Miss Ireland -- Orange Sensation -- Pink Parfait ; no dustjacket ; G. Book.
Weitere BilderVerlag: Stamps-Baxter Music & Print. Co., Dallas, 1957, 1957
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In den WarenkorbSoft cover. Zustand: Fair. No Jacket. [158] pages ; 20 cm OCLC 9054641 LCCN unk84206678 ; LC M2198 .B ; pictorial stiff paper wrappers ; For 4-part mixed chorus, unaccompanied "Shape notes only." ; composers include: T. R. Baxter. Jr. Albert E.Brumley J. B: Coats Marvin P. Dalton B. I. Cline Terry Pillow Lonnie B. Comii.3 J. R.…Varner Marion W. Easter-lima Renus E. Rich C. H. Culbreth W. M. DeVaughn E. M. Latham Chesley Bray J. M. Watson Howard Young Rev. Henry H. Powell Pat H. Baxter A. H. Elliott Aaron L. Ryder Thos. R. Wilson Edsel Coats W. S. Hess Mrs. P. W. Alexander Lester Williams Dewey Belknap John R. Kendall Buell S. Thompson Elmer L. Ward Rev. Galen Bare Elton E. Galbraith Ruby Lee Williams Ammie 0. Boswell V. 0. Fossett G. T. Speer Dwight Brock Wm. A. McKinney J. A. Collier Ellis Short, Jr. W. W. Combs J. E. Roane Horace A. Kennedy Glen T. Presley Robert R. Christian Jerry Jones C. C. Clements James L. Glover Simmie T. Mann Gordon Ross Terry Killingsworth Mrs. Rena Presley Malcom Jones Rev. E. Bert Riddle Mrs. Grace Morrisett Ezra H. Knight H. Z. (Doc) Tanksley Jeffie Cook Dorthy Fay Taylor Buck Compelube Clarence Craig VT. A. Brown S. J. Smith Mrs. Ray Brasel Arvil Clark I. W. Meeks John Myrick Luther G Presley B. B. Edmiaston Clyde Williams Floyd E. Hunter Wilbur Wilson Austin jvVilliatins Henry L. Thompson John L. Shrader Dr. H. H. Martin S. L. Wallace J. Otis Murphree J. L. Freeman R. J. Daniel 0. 0. Kidd L. L. Hornsby 0. V. Grice H. W. Sloan Mrs. Wilbur Wilson Mrs. Austin Williams Fred Rich Luther M. Hutchins Ruby Smith L. C. Williams Jesse Cook Mrs. Theresa West A. L. Elliott W. Ernest Hamby Floyd E. McNeill-Mrs. E. C. Allgood Guy S. Duncan U. G. Carr U. S. Lindsey Margaret Lowe Ridley ; some wear, FAIR. Book.
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Weitere BilderSilver gleams : our first 1958 book for singing schools, conventions, etc [Stamps-Baxter convention books, 1958, no. 1, 1958, no. 1]]
Stamps-Baxter Music & Print. Co., Dallas [ I. R. Baxter, Jr. Albert E. Brumley G. T. Speer Marvin P. Dalton Lonnie B. Combs Terry Pillow J. R. Varner Dr. H. H. Martin S, L. Wallace Robt, E. Arnold M Sgt Cecil Fisher J. Otis Murphree Curtis Eppler Luther M. Hutchins A. H. Elliott Jas. Thomas Tuck W. C. Woodward C. C. Clements Lester L. Pearson Fred Rich James L. Glover Pat H. Baxter Ezra H. Knight Christine Sims June Smith W. H. Carter Ira B. Dykes, Sr. Howard Young W. C. Stewart Ruby Smith W. S. Hess Floyd E. McNeill V. 0. Fossett J. B. Coats Dwight Brock Floyd E. Hunter Wilbur Wilson J. A. Collier W. W. Combs J. E. Roane C. H. Culbreth Horace A. Kennedy J. L. Freeman W. M. DeVaughn J. M. Watson Gordon Ross E. T. Isbell Simmie T. Mann]
Verlag: Stamps-Baxter Music & Print. Co., Dallas, 1958, 1958
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In den WarenkorbSoft cover. Zustand: Good. No Jacket. 160 pages : music ; 20 cm OCLC 1889713 ; pictorial stiff paper wrappers ; 135 hymns in shape-note notation ; Hymns include: Forever with the Lord -- Heavenly rest -- We'll see heaven some day -- He's a wonderful Savior -- Only trust Him -- I'll not forget my Savior's love -- Jesus will lead…the way -- I have a contented heart -- Some happy day -- I know He's mine -- Keep rolling on -- Ain't got time -- My mother's prayer -- Higher ground -- There'll be no skeptics in heaven -- I'm getting closer -- What a Friend -- The writing on the wall -- We'll live with Jesus some day -- I make-a my bed -- What a happy time -- I want my light to shine -- He paid the cost -- Help me Jesus -- Heaven fair is now my goal -- What a day of rejoicing -- In the happy glory land -- How great and wonderful -- My Shepherd -- There's a wonderful day coming soon -- His name is Jesus -- Our home beyond the blue -- Praising Jesus the Lord -- Only in Him -- I am holding to His hand -- We'll sing and shout it -- Can it be true? -- Beautiful home on high -- I've got a mansion -- Over on the hills of glory -- In glory land -- The Lord is never too busy -- I love Him more each day -- I want to live on in glory -- What would we have done? -- I am glad He came -- The beautiful city of gold -- On the King's highway -- A beautiful home -- I have built my house on a rock -- I'd rather have Jesus -- He's abiding in my heart -- Country of life -- Nobody knew -- We need Thee, Lord -- I can live for my Savior -- My Lord makes no mistakes -- I'm on the mountain top -- I'm singing glory to His name -- In that morning -- In Him we shall live -- Love did it -- Now is the time -- With joy I'm telling the story -- Rock of ages -- I want to go there, don't you? -- Revive us again -- I am satisfied -- Glory to His name -- Walking with my Lord -- In glory land -- The great white way -- Jesus cares -- My religion has ev'rything -- I'd like to talk it over with Him -- Thou art our joy --Trusting in Jesus -- The glory way -- Jesus, my truest Friend -- I'm headed for home -- America -- A redeemed soul is the next of kin -- Amazing grace -- Over in glory land -- Jesus -- What a beautiful day -- Jesus is the way -- Fear not the shadows -- Dreaming -- I'll be a witness true -- Where could I go? -- I'm living in a brand new world -- He knows -- Joy comes at dawn -- God's salvation -- Angels will listen -- Anchored in His love -- My wonderful song -- He understands and cares for me -- Ere the sun goes down -- How I love Him -- Sweet is the song I'm singing -- What could I do without Jesus? -- I stood in the bank of the river -- A prayer -- My heavenly home -- There are angels hov'ring 'round -- We'll sing, and we'll sing -- Christ is my pilot -- I want to hear them sing -- In His love -- The blood -- The joy in salvation -- The joy of heav'n awaits us there -- I want to meet you in glory land -- Jesus is my best Friend -- Lord, give me just a little more time -- Lord, I want a mansion -- Acquainted with Jesus -- He knows the way -- Away down deep in my soul -- God made me a man -- I'm glad to know -- The love of Jesus I am going home -- There's a happy feeling in my soul -- I want someone to love me -- I'll settle down in glory -- I'm preaching it -- God's love so great -- Mighty is the Lord -- Ev'ry heart resounds -- The Lord will be first to know -- He will go -- Look upward and smile -- The Father looked down -- In the cool of the evening; Composers include: I. R. Baxter, Jr. Albert E. Brumley G. T. Speer Marvin P. Dalton Lonnie B. Combs Terry Pillow J. R. Varner Dr. H. H. Martin S, L. Wallace Robt, E. Arnold M Sgt Cecil Fisher J. Otis Murphree Curtis Eppler Luther M. Hutchins A. H. Elliott Jas. Thomas Tuck W. C. Woodward C. C. Clements Lester L. Pearson Fred Rich James L. Glover Pat H. Baxter Ezra H. Knight Christine Sims June Smith W. H. Carter Ira B. Dykes, Sr. Howard Young W. C. Stewart Ruby Smith W. S. Hess Floyd E. McNeill V. 0. Fossett etc; ; writing on front cover, else G. Book.
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Zustand: New. 2022. Hardcover. . . . . . Books ship from the US and Ireland.
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Hardcover. Zustand: Brand New. 354 pages. 9.25x6.25x1.10 inches. In Stock.
The Magazine Antiques, December [Dec.] 1951, Vol. LX, No. 6: William Henry Brown of Charleston / Aesop's Fables on Philadelphia Furniture
Avery, C. Louise; Stockwell, David; Boicourt, Jane; Harrigan, Anthony; Rutledge, Anna Wells; Wilson Watson G.; Bowditch, Harold
Verlag: The Magazine Antiques, USA, 1951
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In den WarenkorbSingle Issue Magazine. Zustand: Fair. First Edition. A magazine for collectors and others interested in times past and in articles of daily use and adornment devised by the forefathers. Features: European Earthenware - In the R. Thornton Wilson Collection; Aesop's Fables on Philadelphia Furniture; For the Casual Collector - Amer…ican Woodenware; Lost Plantations; William Henry Brown of Charleston; Invitation to the Antiques Forum; English Silver in a Texas Collection; Heraldry and the American Collector; and more. Many pages of nostalgic ads from a broad assortment of prominent dealers. Profusely illustrated with excellent black and white photos. pp. 477-564. Printed upon glossy stock. Unmarked with somewhat above-average wear. A worthy reference copy of this informative issue. Size: Folio - over 12" - 15" tall.
Weitere BilderTwo complete journal issues of Nature, Vol. 171, comprising: (1) No. 4356, 25 April 1953, containing the three papers under the common head-title 'Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids': WATSON & CRICK, 'A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid,' pp. 737-738; WILKINS, STOKES & WILSON, 'Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids,' pp. 738-740; and FRANKLIN & GOSLING, 'Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate,' pp. 740-741.(2) No. 4361, 30 May 1953, containing WATSON & CRICK, 'Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid,' pp. 964-967
WATSON, J. D. & CRICK, F. H. C.; WILKINS, M. H. F., STOKES, A. R. & WILSON, H. R.; FRANKLIN, R. E. & GOSLING, R. G. [WITH:] WATSON, J. D. & CRICK, F. H. C.
Verlag: Macmillan, London, 1953
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In den WarenkorbFirst edition. Discovery of the Double Helix and the Birth of Molecular Biology. First edition, rare, journal issues in the original printed wrappers, of the four papers by which the double-helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid was announced to the world and its implications for heredity set out. The 25 April 1953 issue of Na…ture carries, under the common head-title 'Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,' three successive papers of a little over a page each: the Watson-Crick paper proposing the double helix with antiparallel sugar-phosphate backbones and complementary base-pairing; the Wilkins-Stokes-Wilson paper reporting the X-ray diffraction evidence that the B-form of DNA is helical; and the Franklin-Gosling paper giving the X-ray diffraction evidence that is in fact decisive for the helical structure, including the famous oxygen positions and fibre-diagram symmetry that Watson and Crick had used, in Franklin's absence and without her permission, to arrive at their model. Five weeks later, in the 30 May issue, the Watson-Crick paper 'Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid' sets out what the two 1953 issues together amount to: that the sequence of bases along the double helix is the carrier of hereditary information; that the complementary structure of the molecule itself supplies the mechanism by which this information is copied from one generation to the next; and that mutation can be understood, for the first time, as a change at a single, localisable position in the molecule. For this body of work Watson, Crick, and Wilkins received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Franklin, who had died of ovarian cancer in 1958 at the age of thirty-seven, was not named. The two issues together are listed in One Hundred Books Famous in Medicine as item 99, in Dibner's Heralds of Science as item 200, in Norman as 534, and in Garrison-Morton as 256.3, 256.4, 256.8, 752.1, and 752.7, reflecting the five distinct discoveries it is possible to cite them for. The problem the papers solved had been on the agenda of biology for eighty-four years. In 1869 the Swiss physiological chemist Friedrich Miescher, working in Felix Hoppe-Seyler's laboratory at Tübingen, had extracted from the nuclei of pus-coated surgical bandages a substance of unprecedentedly high phosphorus content, resistant to the proteolytic enzymes of the day, which he had named 'nuclein.' Miescher and his successors had correctly predicted that a whole family of such phosphorus-rich substances would be found to exist, equivalent in rank to the proteins, but the physiological role of the nucleins had remained unknown for the rest of the century. In 1944 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, at the Rockefeller Institute, had established through the pneumococcal transformation experiment that the hereditary material of the cell-the 'transforming principle'-was not, as most biochemists had expected, a protein but was Miescher's nuclein, now understood chemically as deoxyribonucleic acid. Through the following decade the basic chemistry of DNA was worked out: Alexander Todd at Cambridge had established the phosphate-sugar backbone; Erwin Chargaff at Columbia had discovered, from 1950 onward, that in DNA preparations from any source the molar ratio of adenine to thymine and of guanine to cytosine is always one to one, though the A+T to G+C ratio varies between species. These were the data. But what arrangement of atoms produced them, and how the arrangement could act as the carrier of hereditary information through the generations, remained entirely obscure. Two groups in England were applying X-ray crystallographic methods to DNA by the start of 1951. At the Medical Research Council Biophysics Unit at King's College London, under Sir John Randall, Maurice Wilkins had initiated a programme of X-ray diffraction work on DNA fibres; he was joined in late 1950 by Raymond Gosling, then a graduate student, and in January 1951 by Rosalind Franklin, a physical chemist with substantial experience of X-ray crystallography obtained in Paris. The working relationship between Franklin and Wilkins broke down almost at once over a misunderstanding about responsibilities-Randall had verbally placed the DNA work in Franklin's hands without informing Wilkins, who continued to believe it his-and Franklin, with Gosling, worked largely independently through 1951 and 1952. In May 1952 Gosling took, from a well-hydrated fibre of the B-form of DNA that Franklin had prepared, the X-ray photograph that is item 51 in Franklin's laboratory notebook and that is now among the best-known images in the history of science; it shows, from the central cross of spots and the pattern of absences on the layer lines, that the B-form of DNA is an antiparallel double helix with ten residues per turn. By the winter of 1952-1953 Franklin had deduced the space group, the helical parameters, and the antiparallel disposition of the two chains. The one feature she had not yet determined was the base-pairing. At the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, twenty-two-year-old Francis Crick had returned to graduate study in 1949 after the war and was applying the helical diffraction theory of Cochran, Crick, and Vand (1952) to a variety of structural problems; the twenty-three-year-old American James Watson arrived at the Cavendish in October 1951 from a postdoctoral position in Copenhagen with the explicit personal intention of solving the structure of DNA. The two met, agreed that the structure was the central problem of biology, and set out to solve it by the model-building method Linus Pauling had developed for protein ?-helices in 1951. Neither Watson nor Crick was formally assigned to DNA, which was King's territory under an informal British inter-laboratory convention; they nevertheless pursued the problem on and off through 1951 and 1952, producing in late 1951 a disastrously wrong three-stranded model with the phosphate backbones on the inside that Fr.
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In den WarenkorbThree volumes (complete). 290, 260, [1], 267 p., 122, 95, 71 figures, 3 maps, paperbound. Library stamps, else very good set of this out of print title.
Weitere BilderMolecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid; Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids; Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate; Three papers from Nature, Vol. 171, No. 4356, April 25, 1953
Watson, J. D.; Crick, F. H. C.; Wilkins, M. H. F., Stokes, A. R. & Wilson, H. R.; Franklin, R. E. & Gosling, R. G.
Verlag: Fisher, Knight & Co, St. Albans, 1953
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In den WarenkorbFirst Edition. Offprint, 8vo (210 x 140mm), pp. 14, with two diagrams (including the double helix) and two illustrations from photographs. The three-paper offprint issue, of the primary record of the co-discovery of the molecular structure of DNA, the most transformative moment in twentieth-century biology. Stapled in self-wrapp…ers as issued. Signed by Maurice Wilkins on the first page. Very lightly toned and a coulpe soft creases, near fine. Grolier Club, One Hundred Books Famous in Medicine, 99; Dibner, Heralds of Science, 200. Garrison-Morton 256.3; Judson, Eighth Day of Creation, pp. 145-56. Ex-Dr. Myron Printzmetal. The discovery of DNA's double helix structure emerged from an intense period of competitive collaboration between research teams at Cambridge and King's College London. Watson and Crick's theoretical breakthrough synthesized crucial experimental evidence from multiple sources: Erwin Chargaff's base composition rules demonstrating the 1:1 ratio of adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine, X-ray crystallographic data revealing DNA's helical structure, and most critically, the precise measurements of backbone positioning and molecular dimensions. Their elegant model proposed complementary base pairing (A-T and C-G) held together by hydrogen bonds, immediately suggesting a mechanism for genetic replication where each strand could serve as a template for its complement. The accompanying papers by Wilkins, Stokes, and Wilson, and by Franklin and Gosling, provided essential experimental validation through X-ray diffraction analysis, creating a unified presentation of both theoretical insight and empirical evidence that established the foundation of molecular biology. The contentious history surrounding this discovery has generated enduring scholarly debate, particularly regarding the systematic marginalization of Rosalind Franklin's contributions. Franklin's meticulous X-ray crystallographic work, conducted with her graduate student Raymond Gosling, had independently determined many key structural features including the antiparallel orientation of DNA strands, the external positioning of phosphate groups, and precise helical parameters. Her famous "Photograph 51" provided definitive evidence of DNA's helical structure, while her systematic analysis of A-form and B-form DNA revealed critical dimensions that enabled Watson and Crick's model construction. As Brenda Maddox documents in "Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA," Franklin's data was shown to Watson and Crick without her knowledge through Maurice Wilkins, creating an ethical controversy that persists in discussions of scientific collaboration and gender bias. Franklin's death from ovarian cancer in 1958, four years before the Nobel Prize was awarded to Watson, Crick, and Wilkins, has intensified debates about recognition and the complex dynamics of mid-twentieth century scientific discovery, with many scholars arguing that her rigorous experimental approach was as fundamental to the breakthrough as the theoretical modeling that received greater acclaim. This publication represents the founding document of modern molecular biology, establishing the conceptual framework for understanding heredity, genetic replication, and the molecular basis of life itself. The discovery immediately suggested mechanisms for protein synthesis and genetic information transfer, creating the theoretical foundation for subsequent developments in genetic engineering, biotechnology, and genomic medicine. As Francis Crick later observed, the structure's elegant simplicitywith its complementary base pairing and antiparallel strandsprovided not merely a static model but a dynamic mechanism explaining how genetic information could be accurately copied and transmitted across generations. The offprint's scientific significance extends far beyond its immediate discovery, representing the moment when biology transformed from a primarily descriptive science into a molecular discipline capable of manipulating the fundamental mechanisms of life, establishing the intellectual foundation for the biotechnology revolution that continues to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of evolutionary processes seventy years after its publication.
Weitere Bilder'Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid'; 'Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids'; 'Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate'. Three papers in a single offprint from Nature, Vol. 171, No. 4356, April 25, 1953
WATSON, J. D. & CRICK, F. H. C.; WILKINS, M. H. F., STOKES, A. R. & WILSON, H. R.; FRANKLIN, R. E. & GOSLING, R. G.
Verlag: Fisher, Knight & Co, St. Albans, 1953
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In den WarenkorbFirst edition. DISCOVERY OF THE STRUCTURE OF DNA. First edition, in the rare offprint form, of one of the most important scientific papers of the twentieth century, which "records the discovery of the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the main component of chromosomes and the material that transfers genetic cha…racteristics in all life forms. Publication of this paper initiated the science of molecular biology. Forty years after Watson and Crick's discovery, so much of the basic understanding of medicine and disease has advanced to the molecular level that their paper may be considered the most significant single contribution to biology and medicine in the twentieth century" (One Hundred Books Famous in Medicine, p. 362). "The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes within cells. In short order, their discovery yielded ground-breaking insights into the genetic code and protein synthesis. During the 1970s and 1980s, it helped to produce new and powerful scientific techniques, specifically recombinant DNA research, genetic engineering, rapid gene sequencing, and monoclonal antibodies, techniques on which today's multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry is founded. Major current advances in science, namely genetic fingerprinting and modern forensics, the mapping of the human genome, and the promise, yet unfulfilled, of gene therapy, all have their origins in Watson and Crick's inspired work. The double helix has not only reshaped biology, it has become a cultural icon, represented in sculpture, visual art, jewelry, and toys" (Francis Crick Papers, National Library of Medicine, profiles./SC/Views/Exhibit/narrative/). In 1962, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material." In 1869, the Swiss physiological chemist Friedrich Miescher (1844-95) first identified what he called 'nuclein' inside the nuclei of human white blood cells. (The term 'nuclein' was later changed to 'nucleic acid' and eventually to 'deoxyribonucleic acid,' or 'DNA.') Miescher's plan was to isolate and characterize not the nuclein (which nobody at that time realized existed) but instead the protein components of leukocytes (white blood cells). Miescher thus made arrangements for a local surgical clinic to send him used, pus-coated patient bandages; once he received the bandages, he planned to wash them, filter out the leukocytes, and extract and identify the various proteins within the white blood cells. But when he came across a substance from the cell nuclei that had chemical properties unlike any protein, including a much higher phosphorous content and resistance to proteolysis (protein digestion), Miescher realized that he had discovered a new substance. Sensing the importance of his findings, Miescher wrote, "It seems probable to me that a whole family of such slightly varying phosphorous-containing substances will appear, as a group of nucleins, equivalent to proteins". But Miescher's discovery of nucleic acids was not appreciated by the scientific community, and his name had fallen into obscurity by the 20th century. "Researchers working on DNA in the early 1950s used the term 'gene' to mean the smallest unit of genetic information, but they did not know what a gene actually looked like structurally and chemically, or how it was copied, with very few errors, generation after generation. In 1944, Oswald Avery had shown that DNA was the 'transforming principle,' the carrier of hereditary information, in pneumococcal bacteria. Nevertheless, many scientists continued to believe that DNA had a structure too uniform and simple to store genetic information for making complex living organisms. The genetic material, they reasoned, must consist of proteins, much more diverse and intricate molecules known to perform a multitude of biological functions in the cell. "Crick and Watson recognized, at an early stage in their careers, that gaining a detailed knowledge of the three-dimensional configuration of the gene was the central problem in molecular biology. Without such knowledge, heredity and reproduction could not be understood. They seized on this problem during their very first encounter, in the summer of 1951, and pursued it with single-minded focus over the course of the next eighteen months. This meant taking on the arduous intellectual task of immersing themselves in all the fields of science involved: genetics, biochemistry, chemistry, physical chemistry, and X-ray crystallography. Drawing on the experimental results of others (they conducted no DNA experiments of their own), taking advantage of their complementary scientific backgrounds in physics and X-ray crystallography (Crick) and viral and bacterial genetics (Watson), and relying on their brilliant intuition, persistence, and luck, the two showed that DNA had a structure sufficiently complex and yet elegantly simple enough to be the master molecule of life. "Other researchers had made important but seemingly unconnected findings about the composition of DNA; it fell to Watson and Crick to unify these disparate findings into a coherent theory of genetic transfer. The organic chemist Alexander Todd had determined that the backbone of the DNA molecule contained repeating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar groups. The biochemist Erwin Chargaff had found that while the amount of DNA and of its four types of bases - the purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidine bases cytosine (C) and thymine (T) - varied widely from species to species, A and T always appeared in ratios of one-to-one, as did G and C. Maurice Wilkins an.
