Stokes c g (22 Ergebnisse)
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Zustand: Good. Most items will be dispatched the same or the next working day. A copy that has been read but remains in clean condition. All of the pages are intact and the cover is intact and the spine may show signs of wear. The book may have minor markings which are not specifically mentioned. Ex library copy with usual stamp…s & stickers.
Good Computer Validation Practices: Common Sense Implementation
Teri Stokes; Ronald C. Branning; Kenneth G. Chapman; Heinrich Hambloch; Anthony J. Trill
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Hardcover. Zustand: Very Good. No Jacket. May have limited writing in cover pages. Pages are unmarked. ~ ThriftBooks: Read More, Spend Less.
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Soft cover. Zustand: Very Good. None. First Edition. Poetry Themes. 32 pages of poetry for the younger reader. The poems in this book are chosen to make you think about music, about some of the people who make it, and those who dance to it. Hilary McElderry (illustrator).
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Soft cover. Zustand: Very Good. None. First Edition. Poetry Themes. 32 pages of poetry for the younger reader. A few poems about the sea and the sea shore. Hilary McElderry (illustrator).
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Soft cover. Zustand: Very Good. None. First Edition. Poetry Themes. 32 pages of poetry for the younger reader. The poems in this book are about people, young and old, ordinary and odd. It may be that in some of the poems you will recognise people you know. Hilary McElderry (illustrator).
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Soft cover. Zustand: Very Good. None. First Edition. Poetry Themes. 32 pages of poetry for the younger reader. The poems in this book are chosen to make you find the countryside more beautiful in every season to be taken leisurely with time to stop and look and listen. Hilary McElderry (illustrator).
Verlag: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London, 1853
Anbieter: Attic Books (ABAC, ILAB), London, ON, KanadaAttic Books (ABAC, ILAB)
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Zustand: Fair. Frontispiece, x p. + 5 plates. 26 cm. Engravings of: Vale of Lanherne, Nunnery of Lanherne and Church of St. Mawgan, Ancient Cross in Mawgan Churchyard, Tregurrion Bay, the Norwegian's Rock, The Eyry. Disbound. Consists of half title, frontispiece, title page, Contents, List of illustrations, 5 plates.
The Journal of the Polynesian Society. No. 169. Vol. 43, No. 1. March 1934.
Norman C. Deck; Drury Lowe; H.D.Skinner; John F.G. Stokes and Others
Sprache: Englisch
Verlag: Polynesian Society, New Plymouth, 1934
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Wrappers. Zustand: Good. First Edition. pages 1-112, b/w plates, text illustrations. Contents: A grammar of the language spoken by the Kwara'ae people of Mala, British Solomon Islands, by Norman C. Deck, p 1-16 Traditions of Aitutaki, Cook Islands, by Drury Low, p 17-24 Maori amulets in stone, bone, and shell, by H. D. Skinner,…p 25-29 Reviews and short notices, p 30-32 Publications received, p 33-34 Correspondence, p 35-38 Proceedings, p 39-40. Also Memoir Supplements: Maori Music with its Polynesian Background, Johannes C. Andersen, p. 253-268; The Vocabulary of the Lau Language, W.C. Ivens, p. 61-76; The Migrations of the Pandanus people, Arthur Grimble, p. 85-108.
Verlag: Hearse Press, Eureka, California, 1971
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Softcover. Zustand: Near Fine. Magazine. Small octavo. Paper wrappers. Sunned along the spine, near fine. A literary anthology with contributions from Harold Witt, Charles Edward Eaton, Daniel Hoffman, David Ignatow, William Matthew, Robert Mezey, Philip Booth, David Wagoner, Dugan Gilman, James Schevill, Ted Kooser, Larry Levis…, Stuart Friebert, Dave Etter, Sonya Dorman, Mark McCloskey, Paul Zimmer, David Steingass, Joseph Bruchac, Lyn Lifshin, John Unterecker, Stuart Peterfreund, William Hathaway, Herbert Scott, Terry Stokes, Robert L. Jones, DeWayne Rail, C.G. Hanzlicek, H.L. Van Brunt, James Tipton, David Hilton, Tom McKeown, Wesley McNair, William Witherup, Hale Chatfield, Elton Glaser, James Craig, Alan Soldofsky, Danny L. Rendleman, Rochelle Ratner, Gena Ford, Ian Young, Felix Pollak, Phillip Hey, Robert Hershon, and Carolyn Stoloff.
Strategies for Integrated Communications: State of the Art Report 12:5
Scantlebury, R. (Ed.); Burren, J. W.; Burrows, B.C.; Dewis, I.G.; Ettinger, J.E.; Price, W.L.; Shields, J.; Stokes, A.V.; Tucker, J.; Willmott, R.H.
Sprache: Englisch
Verlag: Pergamon Infotech Ltd., Maidenhead, Berks., England, 1984
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Anbieter: PsychoBabel & Skoob Books, Didcot, Vereinigtes KönigreichPsychoBabel & Skoob Books
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Hardcover. Zustand: Good. Zustand des Schutzumschlags: Acceptable. First Edition. Ex-library: label on spine; jacket taped to endpapers; torn FEP; bookplate on pastedown; ink stamps on endpapers, edges of page block, front matter. Contents otherwise clean, sound. Light wear to covers. Dust jacket tanned and notably worn at edges… and corners. Nicked and chipped.
- Hardcover
Anbieter: Ria Christie Collections, Uxbridge, Vereinigtes KönigreichRia Christie Collections
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Zustand: New. In.
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Zustand: New. This book compares the evolution of the household refuse business in Britain and Germany since 1945. Num Pages: 343 pages, 24 b/w illus. BIC Classification: 1DBK; 1DFG; 3JJP; 3JM; KN; RNH; TQSR. Category: (P) Professional & Vocational; (U) Tertiary Education (US: College). Dimension: 235 x 153 x 25. Weight in Grams…: 628. . 2013. Hardback. . . . . Books ship from the US and Ireland.
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Hardcover. Zustand: Brand New. 338 pages. 9.50x6.50x1.00 inches. In Stock.
Weitere BilderVerlag: Longmans, Green, and Co., London, 1853
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Cloth. Zustand: Good. A beautifully illustrated second edition of this collection of poems by Henry Sewell Stokes. Second edition. Illustrated with frontispiece and five plates. Collated complete. A collection of poems, including: The Land's End, To a Bee, The Rose of The Day, and Home to My Love. Written by Henry Sewell Stokes,… a British poet and schoolfellow of Charles Dickens. Sewell Stokes later befriended both Tennyson and Robert Stephen Hawker. In the original red cloth binding. Externally, smart with light shelf wear and bumping to the extremities. The odd light mark to the board. Library marking to tail of spine. Internally, firmly bound. Pages are bright and clean. Previous owner's bookplate to front pastedown and Cornwall County Office stamps to front endpaper. Good. C. Haghe; J. G. Philp (illustrator). book.
Sprache: Englisch
Verlag: Princeton Univ Pr, 1960
Serie: Annals of Mathematics Studies, Buch 79 von 202. Buch 79 von 202 - Annals of Mathematics Studies
- Softcover
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Paperback. Zustand: Brand New. illustrated edition. 304 pages. 11.00x8.00x0.75 inches. In Stock.
Weitere BilderVerlag: Blackie & Son Limited [1923], London, 1923
- Hardcover
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EUR 58,92
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Cloth. Zustand: Good. A very scarce illustrated collection of short stories for children on animals and dogs. A very scarce work.In the original hardback pictorial board binding.A collection of short stories for children on the subject of dogs and animals, with titles such as 'Polly and Peter', The Chow', 'Percy the Pug', 'The D…isobedient Ducks', 'Large and Small', 'A Hunting Dog' and more.A copiously illustrated volume by a variety of artists such as Cecil Aldin, R.H. Brock, G. Vernon Stokes, Mildred C. Hunter, and F.S. Ash.With a coloured frontispiece, a double page coloured plate, and a coloured plate to the rear, including in text illustrations throughout.Undated, dated from a matching copy held at the British Library. In the original hardback binding. Externally, smart. Bumping to the spine, with paper splitting and slight loss to the head and tail, with sunning. Shelf wear to extremities. Internally, firmly bound. Pages are bright and clean, with light spotting. Bookplate to rear of title page. Good. Cecil Aldin; R.H. Brock; G. Vernon Stokes; Mildred C. Hunter; F.S. Ash; et al. (illustrator). book.
[C.R. Hewitt; "C.H. Rolph"] Autograph Letter Signed ('C R Hewitt') to Sewell Stokes.
C. R. Hewitt (1901-1994) (Cecil Rolph Hewitt, who wrote under the pseudonym 'C. H. Rolph'), English policeman, journalist, editor and author [Francis Martin Sewell Stokes (1902-1979); G. W. Stonier]
Verlag: 21 November ; 6 Liskeard Gardens London SE3 on New Statesman letterhead, 1957
Anbieter: Richard M. Ford Ltd, London, Vereinigtes KönigreichRichard M. Ford Ltd
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8vo, 2 pp, 33 lines. Good, on lightly aged and creased paper. An interesting letter, written by a former policeman to a former probation officer, on the subject of the latter's book 'Come to Prison: A Tour through British Prisons today' (Longmans, 1957), about which the former has written a negative review. Begins by praising St…okes' 'really generous letter, written at what cost in self-control I can only dimly imagine'. When Hewitt 'read the published review', he thought 'that it was still on the whole unfair'. 'I hate reviewing really, and am a bad reviewer. Objectivity eludes me, and I pontificate, as if I were the only man in the world with the knowledge of the subject.' He claims what he 'really thought' was that 'the name of Sewell Stokes commands respect'. He remembers 'how very impressed G. W. Stonier was years ago with Court Circular, though I thought that book was unfair!' He is writing 'an Observer "profile" ' of Sir Lionel Fox, whom they both admire. Concludes 'I'm afraid your very readable book will be a success, despite the price!'.
Verlag: Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1853
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Hardback. Zustand: Very Good. No Jacket. 1853. Almost very good condition with no wrapper. Blue embossed cloth, gilt title to spine. Yellow endpapers. B/w plates from stone engravings, tissue guards. Spine and corners worn. Cloth a bit grubby. Some foxing. Packaged with care and promptly dispatched. Haghe, C. & Philip, J.G. (ill…ustrator).
Maclean's, Canada's National Magazine, October (Oct.) 15, 1936 - Revolt in Quebec / Farming in King Ridges, Ontario
Radcliffe, Garnett; Shenton, Edward; Cheavens, Martha; Morse, Ann; Booth, Charles G.; Roberts Leslie; Stokes, Charles W.; Knowles Jr., R.E.; Carroll, Dink; Et al
Verlag: Maclean Hunter / Key Publishers, Montreal, 1936
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Single Issue Magazine. Zustand: Good. First Edition. 60 pages. Features: Russell Sambrook cover illustration of boy in pajamas sneaking his dog upstairs; Dominion Linoleum colour ad inside front cover features yellow and maroon interior design of a 'very lucky' young person's bedroom; AC spark plug ad features horse talking to m…an cleaning his shotgun; Premier Aberhart of Alberta ponders 'licensing' newspapers; Fantastic one-page photo-illustrated ad for Marconi radios includes photos of newscaster Christopher Ellis and Frances James, plus photos of the model 79 A.C., 81 A.C. and 85 A.C. radios; One-page ad for the Parker Vacumatic pen features marathon theme; The Red Boar (short story from Rajputana); Revolt in Quebec - The English-Canadian View - article with photos of C.E. Gault, Maurice Duplessis and Camillien Houde; A Matter of Business (short story); Forward-Pass Time - article explaining how the aerial attack has made a new game of Canadian football - with photo of Rosso of the Argos in 1935; Beverley Baxter shares interesting new from London, plus he explains how Hitler saw propaganda used against Germany in WWI and vowed to use that same weapon to avenge his nation; Finished Picture (short story about the marriage trap); J. Bull, Customer - article on Canadian exports to Britain; The Thin Woman (short story); Photo-illustrated article on the settlers of King Ridges, 25 miles north of Toronto, where 41 families formerly on relief are plowing, sowing and reaping to earn their own living from the land; The General Died at Dawn (short story); Vintage one-page colour-photo ad for Green Giant Fine Foods of Canada features their canned vegetables; Very nice one-page colour-photo Westinghouse Air-pilot radio ad; Charming one-page colour Kraft ad features their cheese products; Prestone anti-freeze one-page ad features illustrations of (now) classy vintage cars; Half-page Palmolive Soap ad features two photos of the Dionne Quints, plus Dr. Dafoe who helped birth them; Stanfield's ad features illustration of man proudly strutting in his long underwear; Ponds Cold Cream ad features photo of Mrs. William Jay Iselin; One-page ad for the Singer "Make-It-Yourself" Wardrobe Plan; Fantastic colour photo/colour comic ads inside back cover for Lifebuoy and Rinso soaps feature "True B.O. Experience No. 127"; Back cover colour ad by the federal Department of Fisheries encourages readers to eat fish often; and more. Average wear. Unmarked. A sound copy of this marvelous depression-era issue. Sambrook, Russell (Cover Art); Wilcox, C.R.; Hallam, J.S.; Keay, Jack; McCrea, H.W.; Eldridge, H. (illustrator).
Weitere BilderTwo complete journal issues of Nature, Vol. 171, comprising: (1) No. 4356, 25 April 1953, containing the three papers under the common head-title 'Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids': WATSON & CRICK, 'A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid,' pp. 737-738; WILKINS, STOKES & WILSON, 'Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids,' pp. 738-740; and FRANKLIN & GOSLING, 'Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate,' pp. 740-741.(2) No. 4361, 30 May 1953, containing WATSON & CRICK, 'Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid,' pp. 964-967
WATSON, J. D. & CRICK, F. H. C.; WILKINS, M. H. F., STOKES, A. R. & WILSON, H. R.; FRANKLIN, R. E. & GOSLING, R. G. [WITH:] WATSON, J. D. & CRICK, F. H. C.
Verlag: Macmillan, London, 1953
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First edition. Discovery of the Double Helix and the Birth of Molecular Biology. First edition, rare, journal issues in the original printed wrappers, of the four papers by which the double-helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid was announced to the world and its implications for heredity set out. The 25 April 1953 issue of Na…ture carries, under the common head-title 'Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids,' three successive papers of a little over a page each: the Watson-Crick paper proposing the double helix with antiparallel sugar-phosphate backbones and complementary base-pairing; the Wilkins-Stokes-Wilson paper reporting the X-ray diffraction evidence that the B-form of DNA is helical; and the Franklin-Gosling paper giving the X-ray diffraction evidence that is in fact decisive for the helical structure, including the famous oxygen positions and fibre-diagram symmetry that Watson and Crick had used, in Franklin's absence and without her permission, to arrive at their model. Five weeks later, in the 30 May issue, the Watson-Crick paper 'Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid' sets out what the two 1953 issues together amount to: that the sequence of bases along the double helix is the carrier of hereditary information; that the complementary structure of the molecule itself supplies the mechanism by which this information is copied from one generation to the next; and that mutation can be understood, for the first time, as a change at a single, localisable position in the molecule. For this body of work Watson, Crick, and Wilkins received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Franklin, who had died of ovarian cancer in 1958 at the age of thirty-seven, was not named. The two issues together are listed in One Hundred Books Famous in Medicine as item 99, in Dibner's Heralds of Science as item 200, in Norman as 534, and in Garrison-Morton as 256.3, 256.4, 256.8, 752.1, and 752.7, reflecting the five distinct discoveries it is possible to cite them for. The problem the papers solved had been on the agenda of biology for eighty-four years. In 1869 the Swiss physiological chemist Friedrich Miescher, working in Felix Hoppe-Seyler's laboratory at Tübingen, had extracted from the nuclei of pus-coated surgical bandages a substance of unprecedentedly high phosphorus content, resistant to the proteolytic enzymes of the day, which he had named 'nuclein.' Miescher and his successors had correctly predicted that a whole family of such phosphorus-rich substances would be found to exist, equivalent in rank to the proteins, but the physiological role of the nucleins had remained unknown for the rest of the century. In 1944 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, at the Rockefeller Institute, had established through the pneumococcal transformation experiment that the hereditary material of the cell-the 'transforming principle'-was not, as most biochemists had expected, a protein but was Miescher's nuclein, now understood chemically as deoxyribonucleic acid. Through the following decade the basic chemistry of DNA was worked out: Alexander Todd at Cambridge had established the phosphate-sugar backbone; Erwin Chargaff at Columbia had discovered, from 1950 onward, that in DNA preparations from any source the molar ratio of adenine to thymine and of guanine to cytosine is always one to one, though the A+T to G+C ratio varies between species. These were the data. But what arrangement of atoms produced them, and how the arrangement could act as the carrier of hereditary information through the generations, remained entirely obscure. Two groups in England were applying X-ray crystallographic methods to DNA by the start of 1951. At the Medical Research Council Biophysics Unit at King's College London, under Sir John Randall, Maurice Wilkins had initiated a programme of X-ray diffraction work on DNA fibres; he was joined in late 1950 by Raymond Gosling, then a graduate student, and in January 1951 by Rosalind Franklin, a physical chemist with substantial experience of X-ray crystallography obtained in Paris. The working relationship between Franklin and Wilkins broke down almost at once over a misunderstanding about responsibilities-Randall had verbally placed the DNA work in Franklin's hands without informing Wilkins, who continued to believe it his-and Franklin, with Gosling, worked largely independently through 1951 and 1952. In May 1952 Gosling took, from a well-hydrated fibre of the B-form of DNA that Franklin had prepared, the X-ray photograph that is item 51 in Franklin's laboratory notebook and that is now among the best-known images in the history of science; it shows, from the central cross of spots and the pattern of absences on the layer lines, that the B-form of DNA is an antiparallel double helix with ten residues per turn. By the winter of 1952-1953 Franklin had deduced the space group, the helical parameters, and the antiparallel disposition of the two chains. The one feature she had not yet determined was the base-pairing. At the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, twenty-two-year-old Francis Crick had returned to graduate study in 1949 after the war and was applying the helical diffraction theory of Cochran, Crick, and Vand (1952) to a variety of structural problems; the twenty-three-year-old American James Watson arrived at the Cavendish in October 1951 from a postdoctoral position in Copenhagen with the explicit personal intention of solving the structure of DNA. The two met, agreed that the structure was the central problem of biology, and set out to solve it by the model-building method Linus Pauling had developed for protein ?-helices in 1951. Neither Watson nor Crick was formally assigned to DNA, which was King's territory under an informal British inter-laboratory convention; they nevertheless pursued the problem on and off through 1951 and 1952, producing in late 1951 a disastrously wrong three-stranded model with the phosphate backbones on the inside that Fr.
Weitere BilderMolecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid; Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids; Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate; Three papers from Nature, Vol. 171, No. 4356, April 25, 1953
Watson, J. D.; Crick, F. H. C.; Wilkins, M. H. F., Stokes, A. R. & Wilson, H. R.; Franklin, R. E. & Gosling, R. G.
Verlag: Fisher, Knight & Co, St. Albans, 1953
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First Edition. Offprint, 8vo (210 x 140mm), pp. 14, with two diagrams (including the double helix) and two illustrations from photographs. The three-paper offprint issue, of the primary record of the co-discovery of the molecular structure of DNA, the most transformative moment in twentieth-century biology. Stapled in self-wrapp…ers as issued. Signed by Maurice Wilkins on the first page. Very lightly toned and a coulpe soft creases, near fine. Grolier Club, One Hundred Books Famous in Medicine, 99; Dibner, Heralds of Science, 200. Garrison-Morton 256.3; Judson, Eighth Day of Creation, pp. 145-56. Ex-Dr. Myron Printzmetal. The discovery of DNA's double helix structure emerged from an intense period of competitive collaboration between research teams at Cambridge and King's College London. Watson and Crick's theoretical breakthrough synthesized crucial experimental evidence from multiple sources: Erwin Chargaff's base composition rules demonstrating the 1:1 ratio of adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine, X-ray crystallographic data revealing DNA's helical structure, and most critically, the precise measurements of backbone positioning and molecular dimensions. Their elegant model proposed complementary base pairing (A-T and C-G) held together by hydrogen bonds, immediately suggesting a mechanism for genetic replication where each strand could serve as a template for its complement. The accompanying papers by Wilkins, Stokes, and Wilson, and by Franklin and Gosling, provided essential experimental validation through X-ray diffraction analysis, creating a unified presentation of both theoretical insight and empirical evidence that established the foundation of molecular biology. The contentious history surrounding this discovery has generated enduring scholarly debate, particularly regarding the systematic marginalization of Rosalind Franklin's contributions. Franklin's meticulous X-ray crystallographic work, conducted with her graduate student Raymond Gosling, had independently determined many key structural features including the antiparallel orientation of DNA strands, the external positioning of phosphate groups, and precise helical parameters. Her famous "Photograph 51" provided definitive evidence of DNA's helical structure, while her systematic analysis of A-form and B-form DNA revealed critical dimensions that enabled Watson and Crick's model construction. As Brenda Maddox documents in "Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA," Franklin's data was shown to Watson and Crick without her knowledge through Maurice Wilkins, creating an ethical controversy that persists in discussions of scientific collaboration and gender bias. Franklin's death from ovarian cancer in 1958, four years before the Nobel Prize was awarded to Watson, Crick, and Wilkins, has intensified debates about recognition and the complex dynamics of mid-twentieth century scientific discovery, with many scholars arguing that her rigorous experimental approach was as fundamental to the breakthrough as the theoretical modeling that received greater acclaim. This publication represents the founding document of modern molecular biology, establishing the conceptual framework for understanding heredity, genetic replication, and the molecular basis of life itself. The discovery immediately suggested mechanisms for protein synthesis and genetic information transfer, creating the theoretical foundation for subsequent developments in genetic engineering, biotechnology, and genomic medicine. As Francis Crick later observed, the structure's elegant simplicitywith its complementary base pairing and antiparallel strandsprovided not merely a static model but a dynamic mechanism explaining how genetic information could be accurately copied and transmitted across generations. The offprint's scientific significance extends far beyond its immediate discovery, representing the moment when biology transformed from a primarily descriptive science into a molecular discipline capable of manipu.
Weitere Bilder'Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid'; 'Molecular Structure of Deoxypentose Nucleic Acids'; 'Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate'. Three papers in a single offprint from Nature, Vol. 171, No. 4356, April 25, 1953
WATSON, J. D. & CRICK, F. H. C.; WILKINS, M. H. F., STOKES, A. R. & WILSON, H. R.; FRANKLIN, R. E. & GOSLING, R. G.
Verlag: Fisher, Knight & Co, St. Albans, 1953
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First edition. DISCOVERY OF THE STRUCTURE OF DNA. First edition, in the rare offprint form, of one of the most important scientific papers of the twentieth century, which "records the discovery of the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the main component of chromosomes and the material that transfers genetic cha…racteristics in all life forms. Publication of this paper initiated the science of molecular biology. Forty years after Watson and Crick's discovery, so much of the basic understanding of medicine and disease has advanced to the molecular level that their paper may be considered the most significant single contribution to biology and medicine in the twentieth century" (One Hundred Books Famous in Medicine, p. 362). "The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes within cells. In short order, their discovery yielded ground-breaking insights into the genetic code and protein synthesis. During the 1970s and 1980s, it helped to produce new and powerful scientific techniques, specifically recombinant DNA research, genetic engineering, rapid gene sequencing, and monoclonal antibodies, techniques on which today's multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry is founded. Major current advances in science, namely genetic fingerprinting and modern forensics, the mapping of the human genome, and the promise, yet unfulfilled, of gene therapy, all have their origins in Watson and Crick's inspired work. The double helix has not only reshaped biology, it has become a cultural icon, represented in sculpture, visual art, jewelry, and toys" (Francis Crick Papers, National Library of Medicine, profiles./SC/Views/Exhibit/narrative/). In 1962, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material." In 1869, the Swiss physiological chemist Friedrich Miescher (1844-95) first identified what he called 'nuclein' inside the nuclei of human white blood cells. (The term 'nuclein' was later changed to 'nucleic acid' and eventually to 'deoxyribonucleic acid,' or 'DNA.') Miescher's plan was to isolate and characterize not the nuclein (which nobody at that time realized existed) but instead the protein components of leukocytes (white blood cells). Miescher thus made arrangements for a local surgical clinic to send him used, pus-coated patient bandages; once he received the bandages, he planned to wash them, filter out the leukocytes, and extract and identify the various proteins within the white blood cells. But when he came across a substance from the cell nuclei that had chemical properties unlike any protein, including a much higher phosphorous content and resistance to proteolysis (protein digestion), Miescher realized that he had discovered a new substance. Sensing the importance of his findings, Miescher wrote, "It seems probable to me that a whole family of such slightly varying phosphorous-containing substances will appear, as a group of nucleins, equivalent to proteins". But Miescher's discovery of nucleic acids was not appreciated by the scientific community, and his name had fallen into obscurity by the 20th century. "Researchers working on DNA in the early 1950s used the term 'gene' to mean the smallest unit of genetic information, but they did not know what a gene actually looked like structurally and chemically, or how it was copied, with very few errors, generation after generation. In 1944, Oswald Avery had shown that DNA was the 'transforming principle,' the carrier of hereditary information, in pneumococcal bacteria. Nevertheless, many scientists continued to believe that DNA had a structure too uniform and simple to store genetic information for making complex living organisms. The genetic material, they reasoned, must consist of proteins, much more diverse and intricate molecules known to perform a multitude of biological functions in the cell. "Crick and Watson recognized, at an early stage in their careers, that gaining a detailed knowledge of the three-dimensional configuration of the gene was the central problem in molecular biology. Without such knowledge, heredity and reproduction could not be understood. They seized on this problem during their very first encounter, in the summer of 1951, and pursued it with single-minded focus over the course of the next eighteen months. This meant taking on the arduous intellectual task of immersing themselves in all the fields of science involved: genetics, biochemistry, chemistry, physical chemistry, and X-ray crystallography. Drawing on the experimental results of others (they conducted no DNA experiments of their own), taking advantage of their complementary scientific backgrounds in physics and X-ray crystallography (Crick) and viral and bacterial genetics (Watson), and relying on their brilliant intuition, persistence, and luck, the two showed that DNA had a structure sufficiently complex and yet elegantly simple enough to be the master molecule of life. "Other researchers had made important but seemingly unconnected findings about the composition of DNA; it fell to Watson and Crick to unify these disparate findings into a coherent theory of genetic transfer. The organic chemist Alexander Todd had determined that the backbone of the DNA molecule contained repeating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar groups. The biochemist Erwin Chargaff had found that while the amount of DNA and of its four types of bases - the purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidine bases cytosine (C) and thymine (T) - varied widely from species to species, A and T always appeared in ratios of one-to-one, as did G and C. Maurice Wilkins an.
