Über die Autorin bzw. den Autor

The Editors

Kenneth H. Silber is president of Silber Performance Consulting, associate professor emeritus from Northern Illinois University and adjunct professor at Capella University. He has been contributing to the performance consulting and instructional design fields since their inception forty years ago. He has co-authored several books, including the Instructional Design Competencies (IBSTPI), and Writing Training Materials That Work (Pfeiffer).

Wellesley (Rob) Foshay is director of research for the Education Technology Group of Texas Instruments. Through The Foshay Group, he speaks and publishes frequently and serves on the editorial board of four research journals in educational technology. He is a founding member of IBSTPI, and co-authored their Instructional Design Competencies. He served on the Board of Directors of ISPI, contributed to the creation of its certification program, and was honored with the Society's Member for Life and Distinguished Service awards. He has contributed over 70 major articles to research journal and books on a wide variety of topics in training, technology and education and is the co-author of Writing Training Materials That Work (Pfeiffer).

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With the contributions from leading national and international scholars and practitioners, this volume provides a "state-of-the-art" look at ID, addressing the major changes that have occurred in nearly every aspect of ID in the past decade and provides both theory and "how-to" information for ID and performance improvement practitioners practitioners who must stay current in their field.

This volume goes beyond other ID references in its approach: it is useful to students and practitioners at all levels; it is grounded in the most current research and theory; and it provides up-to-the-minute coverage of topics not found in any other ID book. It addresses timely topics such as cognitive task analysis, instructional strategies based on cognitive research, data collection methods, games, higher-order problem-solving and expertise, psychomotor learning, project management, partnering with clients, and managing a training function. It also provides a new way of looking at what ID is, and the most comprehensive history of ID ever published.

Sponsored by International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI), the Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace, three-volume reference, covers three core areas of interest including Instructional Design and Training Delivery, Selecting and Implementing Performance Interventions, and Measurement and Evaluation.

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With the contributions from leading national and international scholars and practitioners, this volume provides a "state-of-the-art" look at ID, addressing the major changes that have occurred in nearly every aspect of ID in the past decade and provides both theory and "how-to" information for ID and performance improvement practitioners practitioners who must stay current in their field.

This volume goes beyond other ID references in its approach: it is useful to students and practitioners at all levels; it is grounded in the most current research and theory; and it provides up-to-the-minute coverage of topics not found in any other ID book. It addresses timely topics such as cognitive task analysis, instructional strategies based on cognitive research, data collection methods, games, higher-order problem-solving and expertise, psychomotor learning, project management, partnering with clients, and managing a training function. It also provides a new way of looking at what ID is, and the most comprehensive history of ID ever published.

Sponsored by International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI), the Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace, three-volume reference, covers three core areas of interest including Instructional Design and Training Delivery, Selecting and Implementing Performance Interventions, and Measurement and Evaluation.

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Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace, Instructional Design and Training Delivery

John Wiley & Sons

Chapter One

Wellesley R. Foshay

In the generation since the birth of the instructional design field, our understanding of the basic psychological mechanisms of memory, perception, learning, and problem solving has seen a great deal of development. Corresponding progress in our understanding of the psychology of instruction (or, if you prefer, design of learning environments) has led to important new definitions of principles of instructional design. For those familiar with the behavioral approach, this chapter will review what you already know and show how the cognitive approach differs. For those who have never had a formal study of the assumptions underlying the behavioral approach, this chapter will provide you with a theoretical understanding of the approach you probably have been using to date. Important additional principles are included in the chapters in Part Three. However, a full discussion of the psychology of learning and instruction is beyond the scope of this chapter and of this handbook. If you are interested in pursuing the subject matter further, references to sources from which this chapter is drawn are provided.

We do not mean to imply a disjunctive contrast between the behavioral and the cognitive approach, nor do we mean to imply that behavioral principles are obsolete-only that the cognitive approach often adds prescriptive utility to our practice over a wide range of training needs. Few instructional designers follow a purely behavioral or cognitive approach to design. Furthermore, in many cases the behavioral approach and the cognitive approach lead to similar design solutions. Therefore you may find that you are already using some principles of the cognitive approach in designing your instruction.

HOW THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH IS DIFFERENT FROM THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

Generally speaking, behaviorism is a set of principles concerning both human and non-human behavior. One major behaviorist goal is to explain and predict observable behavior. Behaviorists define learning as the acquisition of new behavior as evidenced by changes in overt behavior. Behaviorism draws conclusions about behavior from research on external events: stimuli, effects, responses, learning history, and reinforcement. These behaviors are studied and observed in the environment and are explained with little or no reference to internal mental processing.

In dramatic contrast to behaviorism, a major tenet of cognitive psychology is that internal thought processes cause behavior. It is their understanding that can best explain human behavior. Cognitive information processing psychologists consider learning to be mental operations that include internally attending to (perceiving), encoding and structuring, and storing incoming information. Cognitive psychologists interpret external stimuli in terms of the way they are processed. They use observable behavior to make inferences about the mind. Furthermore, exciting new work in cognitive neuroscience is relating the structure of the brain to its function, and in the process, validating and elaborating on the accounts of processing and memory induced experimentally by the cognitive psychologists.

The difference in focus between the behaviorist and cognitive theories has important implications for instructional designers who seek design principles based on theory. The biggest differences are in these theoretical areas:

What learning is

Factors influencing learning

The role of memory and prior knowledge

How transfer occurs

The goal of instruction

The structure of instruction

Specific instructional strategies

Different types of learning are best explained by each approach, and each approach provides basic principles that guide instructional design in different circumstances.

What the implications are for each of the above areas and how they differ in each of the two approaches are shown in Table 1.1. It is important to note that some of the differences are merely semantic (for example, "fluency" and "automaticity" both describe degrees of learning proficiency), while some are more substantive. For example, "emphasis on knowledge structures" reflects the cognitive theory's recognition of the need to think about the parts of knowledge in any given subject and how they fit together.

WHY THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IS IMPORTANT

The cognitive approach to ID has become prominent in the past two decades for two reasons, one based in the theory of learning and instructional design, the other based in business. From the perspective of theory, the cognitive approach seeks to overcome a number of limitations of the behavioral approach. For example, with the behavioral approach to ID:

Learners sometimes have trouble transferring what they have learned from training to the job;

Learners can have trouble attaining expert-level performance in troubleshooting and problem solving on the job;

Learners often have trouble generalizing their training from one situation to another, leading to skill gaps every time the job, content, or technology changes, and creating the need for retraining;

Learners may have difficulty with divergent reasoning (many right answers or many ways to get to the answer), as opposed to convergent reasoning (one right answer and one way to get it); and

Designers do not have adequate prescriptions for designing the kinds of training we are now being asked to design-problem solving, troubleshooting (especially in settings where content volatility is high), design, heuristic-based thinking (using guidelines versus algorithmic thinking, which uses formulas with 100 percent predictable outcomes), strategic thinking, and the like.

From the perspective of business, the current behavioral approach to ID sometimes leads to excessive development and delivery costs because it requires:

Longer training sessions, to cover all the specific algorithms or other content variations;

More retraining time, to address lack of transfer to new situations; and

More development time, because there are no guidelines for creating training for higher-order thinking, developers must either guess, or treat problem solving as a large number of low-level procedures and concepts.

The cognitive approach to ID offers remedies to these problems. It provides designers with another way to design training that works well in situations in which higher-order thinking, problem-solving, and transfer to new situations are training goals.

HOW LEARNING OCCURS ACCORDING TO THE COGNITIVE POINT OF VIEW

There are many theoretical models in cognitive psychology. Although there are important differences among them, they broadly agree on how learning occurs. According to these models, there are several components of the mind, and each is involved in the learning process in certain ways. How each component of the mind...