Design and History

In 1897, the Norddeutscher Lloyd liner Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse entered service on the North Atlantic run. Compared with other German liners of the era, this ship was different. In fact, compared with all liners crossing the Atlantic on regular passages, this ship was different. She was built by a German yard, she was the largest ship in the world, and she soon proved herself to be the fastest, and she was the first four-funnelled liner.

The North Atlantic trade had been dominated by Britain. Cunard had two record breakers, Lucania and Campania, in service, so the new German-built wonder-liner came as a shock to the British and, for the fastest transatlantic passenger ship voyage, she won the prestigious Blue Riband on her fourth trip. This was the first time that the distinction went to a German ship.

In the ten years starting in 1897, Norddeutscher Lloyd built four four-funnelled liners and Hamburg Amerika Linie built one – Deutschland, which in 1900 took the Blue Riband from Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse.

However, these high-speed liners all had two fundamental flaws: they were expensive to run and they vibrated badly, particularly towards the stern, where it was most uncomfortable for passengers. Nevertheless, these German successes were a blow to the British.

The second blow to British shipping came when the prestigious Oceanic Steam Navigation Co Ltd, better known as White Star Line, was sold to the International Mercantile Marine Company (IMMC), or in other words John Pierpont Morgan, the American financier and banker. Even though White Star Line ships continued to sail under the British flag, were manned by British crews and the headquarters remained in England, the White Star Line was owned in the United States.

The British needed to respond. In 1907, Cunard commissioned Lusitania and Mauretania. These too would both win the Blue Riband, and Mauretania would remain the fastest ship on the North Atlantic until 1929, when the Blue Riband was recaptured, again, by Germany.

DESIGN BACKGROUND

On a summer evening in 1907, J Bruce Ismay, chairman of White Star Line, and Lord Pirrie, chairman of Harland & Wolff, the Belfast shipbuilders, met at Pirrie's home at Belgrave Square in London. The topic of the conversation was no doubt the developments in the transatlantic business. The idea of two giant liners, with possibly a third to follow and destined to win back passenger trade for White Star, was born over after-dinner drinks and cigars. These two giant liners would be named Olympic and Titanic. No attempt would be made to surpass the new Cunarders and the German record breakers in speed. Speed was not of the essence. These two new ships would be outstanding in size, luxury, comfort and safety with features such as electric lifts, an indoor swimming pool and a gymnasium. The lesser speed would lead to less vibration and so, in turn, improve passenger comfort. The gross tonnage of each liner was to be 45,000, which was considerably larger than the new Cunarders. A third ship, Gigantic, would follow.

They were to be powered by a combination of two four-cylinder triple-expansion reciprocating engines for the wing propellers and a Parsons low-pressure turbine for the centre propeller. This combination had been tried and tested on White Star's Laurentic and it proved to be very economical. The machinery was to be fired by twenty-four double-ended boilers with six furnaces each and five single-ended boilers with three furnaces each. Titanic's reciprocating engines, the largest ever built, extended over four decks and two watertight compartments.

Despite the disaster on 14 April 1912, Titanic was possibly the safest ship of her time. Her hull was divided into sixteen watertight compartments and had a double bottom. By the 'flick of a switch' the captain could close the watertight doors and make the vessel 'practically unsinkable'. She could stay afloat with her first three watertight compartments opened to the sea. Indeed, Titanic would have remained afloat if she had hit the iceberg head on, but nobody foresaw a glancing blow that would open six watertight compartments to fatally wound the ship and cause her to founder.

Nor was it ever intended to leave the third class passengers to their fate. The idea behind so few lifeboats was that there would always be a ship nearby to assist should something happen. The idea was to row out the first class passengers first, row back to collect the second class and then the third. This philosophy was supported by the experience gained during the loss of the White Star's Republic, which sank in 1909 after a collision in heavy fog. Republic's wireless operator sent out the first CQD in history and several ships came to Republic's assistance. The few casualties were a direct result of the collision. Nearly everyone on board was saved.

On 28 July 1908, a delegation of the most important people in British shipping arrived at Harland & Wolff's shipyard at Queen's Island, Belfast. Harland & Wolff had prepared concept plans and a small half-model of the giant new ships. With Morgan's financial muscle in the background, the costs of these ships would clearly be covered. Three days later, on 31 July, the contract letter was signed for the two liners – the builder's yard numbers 400 (Olympic) and 401 (Titanic). Olympic's keel was laid on 16 December 1908, followed by Titanic's just over three months later on 31 March 1909. This time span was necessary to take some of the logistical pressure off the workshops during the construction of these huge ships.

In the unpredictable weather of spring 1909, the cellular double bottom of Titanic expanded from each side of the keel. During the summer months the workers began to raise the frames. Titanic's hull was fully framed by April 1910 and work on the hull plating began. The shell plates were generally about 30 ft long and up to 6 ft high. The largest plates each weighed 4.5 tons. Mild steel was used for construction throughout.

Above the bridge deck, the upper hull was built of lighter scantlings and was of lesser structural significance. Two expansion joints were included into these decks to permit the hull to move and flex freely when the ship was under way in heavy seas.

The shell plates were kept together by steel rivets that could easily fit into the palm of a man's hand, and which were pushed through holes in overlapping shell plates. The end of the rivet shaft that extended beyond the overlapping plates was hydraulically compressed into a snap (rounded) head in a split second. This action fired the rivet redhot and as it cooled it shrank and thereby pulled the overlapping shell plates tight. Three million rivets were needed to build each hull. By October 1910, the shell plating was complete.

Olympic was launched on 20 October 1910 and she was moored at the deepwater wharf where fitting out began. Her hull settled deeper into the water as the boilers were installed, funnels and masts were erected and the superstructure, winches and vents were bolted onto her decks.

The last day of May 1911 was memorable for Harland & Wolff and White Star Line, because on this day Olympic was handed over to her owners and Titanic was successfully launched. It was also Lord Pirrie's birthday. A large number of distinguished guests were invited by Harland & Wolff to witness the launch of its greatest ship yet – Titanic. In beautiful weather the guests on board the chartered Irish Sea ferry Duke of Argyll saw the glistening new Olympic in all her splendour as they steamed past her on their way from Liverpool to Belfast early that morning. As usual at Harland & Wolff there was no naming ceremony. To warn small craft to stay well clear, at 12.05pm, two rockets were fired and these were followed a few minutes later by a third. After the launching triggers had been fired, Titanic's hull began to move down the ways under its own weight. Thousands of spectators cheered as the hull slid backwards into the River Lagan just after midday.

After reaching a speed of 12 knots and having travelled some 500 metres, the hull was stopped by six anchors and two 80-ton drag chains. Workers removed the anchor cables from the hull and tugs towed Titanic to the deep water wharf to be fitted out.

At 2.30pm, Nomadic left Belfast to join Olympic. On board were, among others, J P Morgan, J Bruce Ismay, Lord Pirrie and other notables from Harland & Wolff and White Star Line. At 4.30pm, Olympic, under the command of Captain Edward J Smith, Commodore of White Star Line, left for Liverpool a mere twenty-nine months after her keel was laid and, even more astonishing, seven-and-a-half months after fitting out had begun. After arrival in Liverpool on 1 June, she was opened to the public. Shortly before midnight on the same day, she left for Southampton from where she would embark on her maiden voyage on 14 June. After a day's trip, Olympic arrived at Southampton before daylight on 3 June 1911 and preparations for the maiden voyage began immediately. She was again opened to the public in Southampton on 10 June.

OLYMPIC ENTERS SERVICE

The crew mustered at 8.00am on 14 June on board Olympic and slowly the passengers began to arrive, adding to the excitement of the pre-voyage activity. Shortly after midday, Olympic was towed backwards out of her berth and she began her maiden voyage to Cherbourg, Queenstown and New York with a full complement of passengers. Thousands had come to see her off. It was a gala occasion and Olympic was on every front page.

Although the voyage was hampered by poor weather, it was highly successful for White Star Line. Olympic had logged a speed of over 21 knots, although her five single-ended boilers remained unfired for the whole crossing. After reaching New York, Ismay cabled to Pirrie 'Olympic is a marvel! She has given unbounded satisfaction! Once again receive my warmest and most sincere congratulations!' During this trip, Ismay had carefully noted improvements of the design that could be included on Titanic. One of his observations was that the promenade space on B-deck was too large and hardly used by passengers. As a consequence, the same area on Titanic received additional staterooms.

Cunard Line had been watching White Star's new ships and had decided that if it wanted to remain in business it would need its own version of the 'wonderships'.

Only a few days after Titanic was launched the keel plates were laid for the Cunard liner Aquitania.

In Germany, Hamburg Amerika Linie already had the 50,000-ton Europa under construction (it would eventually be named Imperator) and two more ships, Vaterland and Bismarck, were to follow.

White Star Line had no time to rest on its laurels. With three ships, it could offer a weekly service between Southampton and New York, instead of the fortnightly service with two ships. After the success of Olympic's maiden voyage, minds were made up and the order for Gigantic (Harland & Wolff Yard No 433) confirmed, but her keel was not laid until November 1911 because the slip, the same on which Olympic was built, was occupied at the time. Olympic returned to Southampton on 5 July after reaching a speed of 22.32 knots on this eastbound run; all of her boilers were lit and weather conditions were more favourable.

On her next passages, Olympic began to settle into the routine as a transatlantic liner. It was not until her fifth trip to New York that liners of such size became a cause for concern. She had left Southampton for New York on the morning of 20 September and was approaching the Bramble Bank when the cruiser HMS Hawke was spotted to her starboard side approaching from the Solent. After Olympic had rounded the Bank both ships were heading for Spithead, the channel north-east of the Isle of Wight, and were on a near parallel course when Hawke suddenly turned to port as if to pass Olympic astern.

However, the cruiser smashed into Olympic's starboard side directly beneath the aft well deck and almost capsized; it left a gaping hole in the liner's side. The sheer momentum of the gigantic liner tore off Hawke's ram and the cruiser span around like a top as she was finally released from the liner that was speeding past her. Several second-class cabins were demolished but fortunately there were no casualties, because most of the passengers werein the dining saloon having lunch. However, the crossing was cancelled.

Due to tidal considerations, Olympic could not return to Southampton. Immediately after the collision she anchored in Osborne Bay and later steamed on to Cowes, where the passengers were taken off by tenders. The following day, Olympic slowly steamed back to Southampton where the gash was sealed with wooden patches and on 3 October she headed for Belfast to be repaired. Travelling at very low speed, she arrived there three days later.

Harland & Wolff was already experiencing difficulties in keeping the construction of Titanic on schedule and this was made worse with Olympic arriving back in the yard for repairs. Olympic went back into service on 29 November 1911. On 25 September, White Star Line announced that the date for Titanic's maiden voyage would be 20 March 1912. However, after Olympic had arrived in Belfast for repairs, it was announced that the departure date for Titanic would be 10 April 1912.

Olympic's series of misfortunes was not over. On 24 February 1912, while on her way to Southampton from New York, she lost a propeller blade and had to return to Belfast yet again for repairs, and again it had an adverse effect on the schedule for Titanic's completion.

TITANIC'S MAIDEN VOYAGE

As one of the final changes in the construction of Titanic, the forward promenade deck sides were enclosed because experience with Olympic had shown that this area had a tendency to be wet in heavy seas. This enclosure was one of the most significant visual differences between the two ships. While final touches were hastily made to Titanic, the officers and crew began to arrive at Belfast. Most of them lived on the ship while they became familiar with the equipment they would have to work with in the future. Time constraints did not permit Titanic to be opened to the public.

On 31 March, although some minor work was still being carried out, Titanic was ready for sea trials that were to begin the following day, but the weather turned out to be most unfavourable and trials were postponed to 2 April. Time was running out!

At 6.00am on 2 April, which was a clear day, four tugs manoeuvred the liner out of the dock and from Belfast Lough into the open sea. Smoke pouring from Titanic's first three funnels indicated that furnaces were being fired. A short distance before Carrickfergus the tugs dropped their tow ropes and the trials could begin. At 6.00pm, after completing the trials and returning to Belfast, a representative from the British Board of Trade, Francis Carruthers, who had been following the trials, instructed one more final test: both anchors were to be dropped and raised. After all trials had proven satisfactory, Carruthers signed the certificate clearing Titanic for use for transatlantic passenger transportation. Afterwards Thomas Andrews, representing Harland & Wolff, handed over Titanic to her owners, represented by Harold Sanderson.

All crew members who were not to travel to Southampton disembarked and shortly after 8.00pm Titanic left Belfast heading for Southampton. Final preparations and tests were still being carried out on board, and on this trip Titanic reached a little more than 23 knots – the highest speed she would ever log. After midnight on 3 April 1912, at high tide, Titanic reached Southampton, twelve hours after Olympic had left for another crossing to New York. Tugs carefully nudged her, stern first, into Berth 44 from where she would depart for her maiden voyage on 10 April.

Due to a coal strike, seamen could not find work on liners because these did not have enough coal to make their crossings. Some seamen had not worked for more than six weeks. Clearly, vacancies on Titanic were much sought after. Most were happy to sign on under the popular Captain Edward J Smith and particularly on the new Titanic. Most of the crew was signed on 6 April. The majority came from Southampton, others from Belfast, Liverpool and London. The coal dispute was settled on 6 April, which was too late to supply Titanic with the fuel needed for the journey across the Atlantic if she was to depart on schedule. Coal was taken from other IMMC ships berthed at Southampton. Their trips were cancelled and their passengers were transferred from these ships to Titanic.

On 5 April, Good Friday, Titanic was dressed overall. Colourful flags were fastened to Titanic's lines from stem to stern for the enjoyment of the people of Southampton. Thomas Andrews was on board taking care of final details. He noted everything from defective heating fans to the number of screws on hat hooks in the staterooms.