Basic Principles of Inorganic Chemistry
Making the Connections
By Brian Murphy, Clair Murphy, Brian J. HathawayThe Royal Society of Chemistry
Copyright © 1998 The Royal Society of Chemistry
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-0-85404-574-7Contents
Chapter 1 Moles and Molarity, 1,
Aims and Objectives, 1,
States of Matter, 1,
Elements, Atoms and Molecules, 1,
Elements, Mixtures and Compounds (Molecules), 2,
Simple Chemical Names, 3,
Cations and Anions, 3,
Types of Chemical Formula, 4,
Atomic Weight, 4,
Avogadro's Number, 5,
Empirical Formula, 5,
Chemical Equations, 6,
Balancing Chemical Equations, 7,
Molar Solutions, 8,
Volumetric Reactions, 9,
Volumetric Titrations, 10,
Limiting Reactions, 11,
Worked Example No. 1, 11,
Worked Example No. 2, 13,
Chapter 2 The Structure of the Atom, Electron Configuration and the Build-up to the Periodic Table, 14,
Aims and Objectives, 14,
The Structure of the Atom, 14,
Bohr Model of the Atom, 17,
The Build-up Process for the Periodic Table, 27,
Chapter 3 The Physical Properties of the Elements and the Periodic Table, 31,
Aims and Objectives, 31,
The Periodic Table, 31,
Variation in the Atomic Radii, 34,
Variation in the Ionisation Potentials, 34,
Variation in the Electron Affinities or Attachment Enthalpies, 37,
Summary, 38,
Chapter 4 Chemical Properties of the Elements and the Periodic Table, 39,
Aims and Objectives, 39,
Introduction, 39,
Characteristic or Group Oxidation Numbers, 41,
Oxidation Numbers, 43,
Rules for the Determination of Oxidation Numbers, 44,
Main Group Variable Valence, 44,
Transition Metal Variable Valence, 46,
Chemical Stoichiometry, 49,
The Calculation of Chemical Stoichiometry Factors – Worked Examples, 51,
Redox Reactions, 52,
Covalent Bonds, 53,
Polyatomic Covalent Molecules, 56,
Molecular Orbital Theory of Diatomic Molecules, 56,
Bond Order, 60,
Chapter 5 The Lewis Structures of Molecules, Cations and Anions, Including Oxyanions, 61,
Aims and Objectives, 61,
Introduction, 61,
The Working Method for Drawing Lewis Structures, 64,
Example 1: Methane (CH4) and Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4), 65,
Example 2: The Ammonium Cation (NH4-) and the Tetrafluorborate Anion (BF4-), 66,
Example 3: Ammonia (NH3) and Water (OH2), 68,
Example 4: Beryllium Dihydride (BeH2) and Boron Trifluoride (BF3, 69,
Example 5: Phosphorus Pentchloride (PCl5) and Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6), 70,
Example 6: l,l,-Dichloromethanone (C12CO) and Ethene (C2H4), 71,
Example 7: Ethyne (C2H2), 73,
The Oxyacids and Oxyanions of the Main Group Elements, 74,
The Position of the Hydrogen Atoms in the Oxyacids, 74,
The Free Valence of the Terminal Oxygen Atoms, 76,
Resonance in the Structures of the Oxyanions, 78,
The Application of the Working Method to the Lewis Structures of the Oxyanions, 79,
Example 1: Carbonic Acid, H2CO3, 79,
Example 2: Sulfuric Acid, H2SO4, 81,
The Use of Formal Charges, 84,
Summary, 86,
Chapter 6 Shape and Hybridisation, 88,
Aims and Objectives, 88,
The Shapes of Covalent Molecules, 88,
The Working Method for Using VSEPR Theory, 92,
Deviations from Regular Shapes, 94,
The Advantages of VSEPR Theory, 95,
The Disadvantages of VSEPR Theory, 95,
The Shape of Dinuclear Molecules, 95,
Hybridisation of Atomic Orbitals, 99,
Hybridisation in Polynuclear Molecules, 104,
Summary, 106,
Chapter 7 A Features of Interest Approach to Systematic Inorganic Chemistry, 107,
Aims and Objectives, 107,
Introduction, 107,
The Preparation of Simple Compounds from the Elements, 109,
The Reactions of Simple Compounds, 113,
Reaction with Water, 113,
Volumetric Reactions, 114,
The Effect of Heat, 115,
Features of Interest of Simple Compounds – Working Method, 116,
The Applicaton of the Working Method to a Selection of Simple Compounds,
Example 1: Methane, (CH4), 119,
Example 2: Hydrochloric Acid (HCl), 120,
Example 3: Sodium Chloride (NaCl), 121,
Example 4: Phosphorus Pentachloride (PCl5), 122,
Example 5: Copper (II) Oxide, (CuO), 123,
Example 6: Iron (II) Chloride (FeCl2), 124,
Example 7: Iron (II) Sulfate Hexahydrate ([Fe(OH2)6]SO4), 125,
Example 8: Carbonic Acid (H2CO3), 126,
Writing an Essay or Report from a Spider Diagram, 128,
Conclusions, 130,
Suggested Ways Forward, 130,
Phase II – Features of Interest, 130,
Phase III – Features of Interest, 131,
The Advantages of the Features of Interest Approach, 139,
The Disadvantages of the Features of Interest Approach, 139,
Appendices, 144,
Periodic Table of the Elements, 148,
Subject Index, 149,
CHAPTER 1
Moles and Molarity
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This introductory chapter describes the simple ideas of atoms and molecules, types of chemical formula and their molecular weight for students who have not studied chemistry before. Chemical equations and balanced chemical equations are introduced through the reactions used in an introductory practical laboratory course. The concepts of molarity and molar solutions are introduced through solving volumetric problems, to enable the student to start a laboratory course in practical Inorganic Chemistry.
STATES OF MATTER
Chemistry is the science and study of the material world. It is generally accepted that there are three states of matter, solid, liquid and gaseous, and the chemicals that make up the materials of the world involve the chemical elements or molecules.
ELEMENTS, ATOMS AND MOLECULES
The physical state of an element relates to the three states of matter, and the precise state for an element is largely determined by the temperature. Thus at room temperature the element iron is a solid, bromine is a liquid and fluorine is a gas.
In the gaseous state at room temperature helium (He) is a mono-atomic gas, and the formula of the element helium is written as He. However, the gaseous form of hydrogen and oxygen at room temperature involves diatomic molecules, namely, H2 and O2. This difference is largely determined by the individual electron configuration of the elements, and their ability to form bonds to each other, rather than remain (in the gaseous state) as atomic species of the elements.
The way in which the elements of the Periodic Table react together is largely determined by the electron configuration of the individual elements as this determines the ratio in which two elements combine to form a molecule:
Atom 1 + Atom 2 [right arrow] Molecule H + Cl [right arrow] HCl 2 Atom H + 1 Atom O [right arrow] 1 Molecule H2O
The number of atoms of each element in a molecule determines the ratio of the elements in the molecule and is referred to as the stoichiometry of the molecule. In the molecule of HCl the ratio of H:Cl is 1:1, and the molecule has a stoichiometry of 1:1. In H2O the ratio of H:O is 2:1, and its stoichiometry is 2:1.
ELEMENTS, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS (MOLECULES)
An element consists of only one type of atom, i.e. helium, hydrogen or iron. A mixture may contain more than one type of substance that can be physically separated into its components, whereas a...
