English Language Learners in United States Schools

INTRODUCTION

As a result of shifting demographics, the United States has experienced increasing numbers of English language learners (ELLs) in its schools. This is due, for the most part, to the large wave of immigration and the high fertility rates-among linguistically and culturally diverse groups in the United States. These new immigrants, refugees, international students, along with native-born non-English-speaking Americans, have a need to learn English and be successful members of the 'mainstream' American society. The passage of the 1967 Bilingual Education Act of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and the landmark United States Supreme Court decision in Lau v. Nichols in 1974, provided a legal basis for equitable treatment of non-English-speaking students in United States during the last three decades (Lau v. Nichols, 1974). These two events impacted educational policy for non-English language communities and put linguistic minorities in the national spotlight, with the recognition that there is a large and growing number of students in United States schools who have little knowledge of the English language and need specialized language instruction. In 1968, the Bilingual Education Act provided funding to establish bilingual programs for students who did not speak English and who were economically poor. The 1974 Lau v. Nichols decision required every school district to take appropriate action to overcome language deficiencies in providing students equal participation in the instructional program. Today, there is recognition of English language learners/students (ELLs), and the many linguistic, academic and instructional challenges they face, and the need to provide these students with appropriate programs and effective instruction.

English language learners are found in every program and every school district, and they place great demands on teachers, administrators, and educational policy makers. Although many of them are initially placed in language assistance programs, a significant number of these students are enrolled in mainstream classrooms with no or little language assistance. The challenges presented to the schools by the influx of these students impact language specialists as well as regular/mainstream classroom educators. These students are not only required to compete with native speakers of English with respect to academic or literacy related language skills, they must also acquire the basic fluency in English that native speakers developed as a first language. Within such classrooms, students are expected to read longer literary texts, as well as texts in the content areas of mathematics, science, and social studies. In addition, English language learners need to develop the ability to understand native speakers of English in many situations, as well as the ability to read and write materials in English with comprehension and enjoyment. But the most crucial challenge for these students is the expectation of local, state, and national educational agencies that they score at grade level on state and national standardized tests, especially in the area of English language arts and mathematics.

These students are also expected to achieve a passing score in state content areas tests (e.g. New York State Regents exams). Therefore, educators need to find ways of meeting the needs of this significant group of students in achieving the English language arts standards as well as the content learning standards of the different academic subjects. The immediate academic achievement and future (employment) success of these students depends significantly on how successfully they acquire spoken and written English proficiency and develop strategies to appropriately use all the dimensions of the language. These dimensions include the specialized vocabulary of the various content areas, the ability to interpret and use complex syntax and grammatical structures in oral and written modes, and the use of reading and writing in all aspects of school life.

DIVERSITY WITHIN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS' SCHOOL POPULATION

The English language learner population in the United States continues to be linguistically heterogeneous with over 100 distinct language groups identified (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 2002; GAO, 2001). Non-native English-speaking students in United States are foreign born as well as US-born. The US-born ELL students include speakers of American Indian languages as well as those children who were born and raised in non-English households. Children who are raised by parents who are not English proficient come to school with no or little knowledge of English. For example, Puerto Rican parents living in Philadelphia, who are first-generation monolingual Spanish speakers, converse with their babies using the language they have mastered, which in this case is Spanish. During their early years, these children are surrounded by their parents' language and culture, and in many instances their first encounter with literacy is in a language other than English. The Spanish language is the language of communication during the first four or five years. Relatives (adults and children) whose main tool of communication is in a language other than English surround the children with their language. When the children go to church, the playground, the neighborhood store, all they hear is 'their language.' It is when they enter school for the first time that they are faced with an unfamiliar language (English). These children become 'double learners'; they begin to learn English as well as the grade level content curriculum. One group enrolls in language assistance programs such as Bilingual Education or English as a Second Language (ESL). Another group enrolls in all-English classrooms with a short period of English support services. For others, it is the 'swim or sink' approach of making them responsible and accountable for the learning of the language as well as for the content and skills of the curriculum. The extent of their integration in the society and their future employment depends significantly on how successfully they acquire English and use the English language for learning the demands of the school context and the demands of the English-speaking society.

On the other hand, the family of the foreign-born student may be voluntary immigrants or...