Introduction: Progress in adaptation

Rachel Berger and Jonathan Ensor

The global context for community-based adaptation (CBA) is of an increasing certainty of a global temperature rise greater than 2 degrees Celsius by the end of this century, and an absence of adequate action on mitigation. In some parts of the world, the severity of environmental impacts may exceed the conditions for effective adaptation. The chapter reviews the progress in understanding of CBA and the emerging literature from research as well as from field programmes. It defines CBA, and also adaptive capacity, a key element in adaptation, and looks at conceptual frameworks for understanding CBA. The importance of social networks, diversification and innovation and the power relations inherent in access to resources are briefly examined, concepts that are developed more fully in the thematic chapters. Brief introductions to the themes of the case study chapters follow, and the chapter concludes with some outstanding challenges for researchers, practitioners and policy makers.

Keywords: community-based adaptation, climate change, definitions, networks and conferences, adaptive capacity, transformation, scaling up

The global context

This book is being published at a time of paradox. The science is becoming explicit about the certainty and speed with which the earth's climate is changing, and the rapidly diminishing time available for taking action to prevent dangerous climate change. If action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is not taken rapidly, global mean surface temperatures are projected to continue to increase, and there is a high degree of probability of the rise exceeding 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels by the end of this century. We therefore have very few years in which to take the drastic action necessary to stabilize the climate, and yet the probability of timely international action commensurate with the need is small; in the most powerful countries, action on climate change is low on the political agenda compared with economic growth and securing energy supplies.

In 10 years we have moved from a time when it was possible for some to believe that mitigation (reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases) would be sufficient action, and adaptation to climate change would be needed only in certain places, to the realization that in many parts of the world adaptation will soon no longer be possible, because of the severity of the environmental changes consequent upon climate change – changes such as sea-level rise, longer droughts and increased frequency of flooding. In these 10 years, the realization that the impact of climate change falls most heavily on populations that are already vulnerable, and who have contributed least to the problem, has led to the growth of activity – academic research, action research by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and internationally funded programmes of on-the-ground work – to support communities in understanding the challenges that climate change is presenting, and in adapting to them.

Defining community-based adaptation

Community-based adaptation (CBA) to climate change is a community-led process, based on communities' priorities, needs, knowledge and capacities, which seeks to empower people to prepare for and cope with the impacts of climate change (Reid et al., 2009). CBA comprises several components and is rooted in participatory development programmes to strengthen livelihoods and reduce vulnerability, as well as disaster risk reduction thinking to build resilience to climate-related disasters. As Reid and colleagues explain, 'CBA needs to start with communities' expressed needs and perceptions, and to have poverty reduction and livelihood benefits' (2009). Several components are specific to the challenge of dealing with future climate change: the need for scientific information on seasonal forecasts, long-term climate predictions, and local trends in temperature and rainfall, combined with local knowledge and previously successful coping strategies (Ensor and Berger 2009). Climate change modelling embodies considerable uncertainty both about the predictability of longer-term changes in the face of possible tipping points such as the melting of permafrost and Arctic sea ice, and about the changes at sub-regional levels. Dealing with uncertainty is thus a crucial element of CBA and involves building capacity to make decisions that will minimize the risk to livelihoods and assets of an extreme event, and building in an ability to cope with constant change. Dealing with uncertainty and change is likely to involve experimentation and innovation, developing new ways of producing food and earning a living. Another key component of CBA is access to information and knowledge – whether scientific knowledge about new crop varieties, or technologies that will use scarce resources more effectively. Knowledge is power, and poor people are marginalized because they lack power over key resources – including land, water and information. CBA must therefore assist people to organize effectively to participate in local decision-making processes and to mobilize to challenge situations that affect their ability to adapt to climate change.

'Community-based adaptation' is still a relatively new concept, not widely known outside the development community. As a term it has a cosiness, a universal acceptability – who could possibly disagree with a set of interventions aimed at helping poor people cope with current and likely future challenges posed by the changing climate? Buried in this term, though, are two words, the meanings of which need unpacking and examining for the assumptions and concepts embedded within them if there is to be real and long-lasting support for vulnerable people in addressing the uncertain futures that...