Instructed Acquisition of Speaking: Reconciling Theory and Practice

MIROSLAW PAWLAK

Introduction

It is perhaps fitting to start this chapter with a quote from Bygate (2002: 27) who so aptly comments that 'The study of speaking – like the study of other uses of language – is properly an interdisciplinary field. It involves understanding the psycholinguistic and interpersonal factors of speech production, the forms, meanings and processes involved, and how these can be developed'. Indeed, when reading recent overviews of critical issues involved in learning, using, teaching and testing this crucial skill (e.g. Burns & Seidlhofer, 2010; Bygate, 2002, 2008, 2009; Hughes, 2002; Luoma, 2004; Tarone, 2005; Thornbury, 2005), it becomes clear that describing, understanding and explaining these complex processes requires insights from such disciplines as theoretical and applied linguistics, psychology, sociology, neurology or educational studies. More specific contributions, in turn, accrue from particular branches or combinations of these disciplines including, among others, phonetics, phonology, syntax, morphology, pragmatics, conversation analysis, corpus linguistics, second language acquisition, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics or neurolinguistics. Such a huge diversity of influences and the inherent intricacy of their manifold relationships testify to the tremendous complexity of the speaking skill, the inevitable outcome of which is the difficulty involved in its successful development when acquiring a second or foreign language, be it naturalistically, in the classroom or with the benefit of both of these conditions. This difficulty is particularly acute, however, in the case of instructed language acquisition in the foreign language context where out-of-class exposure is often restricted, language instruction is confined to just several hours a week and the quality of classroom discourse is far from conducive to the development of effective communicative skills (Majer, 2003; Ortega, 2007a; Pawlak, 2000, 2004, 2009).

An important source of ideas on how these problems can be tackled are theories, models and hypotheses that specialists have put forward over the last few decades to explain different aspects of the process of second and foreign language acquisition, including the reception and production of speech as well as the appropriation of the requisite knowledge, abilities and skills. This chapter aims to demonstrate how such theoretical perspectives can provide a basis for formulating a set of useful guidelines for learning and teaching speaking in a foreign language setting, such as the one typical of language education in Poland. Following a brief overview of the main challenges in instructed acquisition of speaking, firstly, the key tenets of influential psycholinguistic theories and hypotheses which are more or less directly relevant to the development of speaking skills will be presented, that is the model of speech production (cf. Kormos, 2006; Levelt, 1989, 1999), interactionist approaches (cf. Gass, 1997; Long, 1981, 1996; Swain, 1985, 1995), skill-learning theory (cf. DeKeyser, 1998, 2001) and the model of language proficiency (Skehan, 1998). Secondly, the pedagogical implications stemming from these theoretical positions will be discussed and the feasibility of implementing them in the foreign language classroom will be addressed. The chapter will conclude with a proposal for a tentative model of teaching speaking which is based on the recommendations of theorists but at the same time recognizes the constraints that teachers have to face daily in their classrooms.

Challenges of Instructed Acquisition of Speaking

Before embarking on the task of reconciling theory and practice for the benefit of more effective instructed acquisition of speaking in a foreign language, it appears warranted to take a closer look at what is involved in the mastery of this skill as well as the resultant challenges that have to be faced when learning and teaching it. What must be emphasized from the very outset is that there is a broad consensus among specialists that the ability to engage in oral language production, although it tends to be taken for granted, is '(...) the most complex and difficult to master' (Tarone, 2005: 485). This complexity, which is clearly reflected in the contributions to the present volume, is related to a number of issues, such as the fact that the act of speaking is rarely a monologue and typically also involves simultaneous listening and comprehending; it happens in real time, thus being transient and dynamic; it involves mobilizing various aspects of communicative competence, including non-linguistic...