Intercultural Conflict Interaction Competence: From Theory to Practice

STELLA TING-TOOMEY

In this chapter, intercultural communication training is defined as a skillful facilitation process in which trainees are given ample opportunities to acquire culturally relevant knowledge, increase self-awareness and other-awareness, confront emotional and communication challenges and practice context-pertinent communication skills (Bennett, 2003; Brislin & Yoshida, 1994a; Ting-Toomey, 2004). The 'big picture' goal of intercultural (IC) communication training is to prepare individuals to communicate appropriately and effectively across a diverse range of cultures or in a particular culture and to achieve a comfortable degree of 'goodness of fit' between the new culture and the homeland culture.

More specifically, IC conflict competence training refers to competence-based training of individuals to manage emotional frustrations and interaction struggles mindfully due primarily to cultural group membership differences. Such differences can stem from perceived or actual incompatibility of cultural values, norms, face orientations, goals, scarce resources, processes and/or outcomes in a face-to-face (or mediated) context (Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, 2001). The greater the cultural distance between the two conflict parties, the more likely the assessment or judgment of the conflict negotiation process would be polarized and misconstrued. The cultural membership distances can include deep-level differences, such as historical grievances, cultural worldviews and beliefs. Concurrently, they can also include the mismatch of applying different expectations in a particular conflict scene.

Through competence-based IC training, trainers can mindfully transform the mindsets, affective habits and behavioral routines of the trainees and help them to communicate adaptively across cultures. For a thorough overview of the history of the IC communication training domain, readers can consult Pusch (2004) on the historical trends of the IC training field. This chapter is organized in three sections. The first section reviews major theory-practice approaches related to IC identity-based interactions. The second section draws out the applied implications of the identity-based conflict competence lenses. The chapter concludes with some suggestions for becoming a competent IC communication trainer. In this chapter, an identity-based competence perspective is emphasized because identity issues – whether they surround cultural or ethnic group membership issues or personal identity issues are viewed as the anchoring concepts that sojourners, immigrants and local hosts have to deal with on an everyday interaction basis. Furthermore, when it involves IC conflict process work, most entangled conflict situations between polarized groups or individuals have a strong identity locus.

Intercultural Identity-based Conflict: Three Lenses Some very useful identity-based theories exist in the IC conflict competence and IC adjustment training literature. I have used the following criteria to guide my selection of three identity-based competence approaches for a synoptic review: (a) the approach covers either a strong conceptual-research angle or an applied angle to explain culture-based identity competence issues; (b) the framework has either been systematically tested in a wide range of international cross-cultural settings or has been utilized functionally with a wide range of diverse cultural/ethnic groups; (c) the theory or model has a heuristic function for bridging conflict interaction issues with applied competence practices; and (d) the IC or intergroup concepts are readily accessible in published chapter or paper format for further readings by curious IC researchers or practitioners.

Identity is conceptualized in this chapter as reflective self-images constructed, experienced and communicated by individuals within a culture and in a particular interaction situation (Ting-Toomey, 2005a). I have selected the following three frameworks for discussion in this section: the integrated threat (IT) theory (Stephan & Stephan, 2003), the conflict face-negotiation theory (Ting-Toomey, 1988, 2004) and the cross-cultural code-switching model (Molinsky, 2007).

Integrated Threat Theory

Throughout the years, Stephan et al. (1999) have collaborated closely and influenced each others' ideas in their respective development of the IT theory and the anxiety/uncertainty management theory (Gudykunst, 2005a, 2005b). The IT theory (Stephan, 1999; Stephan & Stephan, 2003) is a theory that fuses various affective theories in the social identity and intergroup prejudice literature and emphasizes one key causal factor on prejudice, namely, feelings of fear or threat. Feelings of fear or identity threat prompt intergroup animosities and conflicts. Feelings of fear or threat are closely aligned with Gudykunst's (2005a) notions on anxiety management issues and ineffective communication concepts.

The IT theory can serve as a macro-level conflict theory that explains intergroup or IC antagonism. Macro-level theory...