Language Learning Strategies in Independent Language Learning: An Overview

CYNTHIA WHITE

Introduction

The notions of independence, autonomy and control in learning experiences have come to play an increasingly important role in language education. A number of principles underpin independent language learning – optimising or extending learner choice, focusing on the needs of individual learners, not the interests of a teacher or an institution, and the diffusion of decision-making to learners. Independent language learning (ILL) reflects a move towards more learner-centred approaches viewing learners as individuals with needs and rights, who can develop and exercise responsibility for their learning. An important outgrowth of this perspective has been the range of means developed to raise learners' awareness and knowledge of themselves, their learning needs and preferences, their beliefs and motivation and the strategies they use to develop target language (TL) competence. In this chapter I begin with an overview of the concept of independent language learning, and of the particular contribution of language learning strategies to this domain. I argue that a fundamental challenge of independent language learning is for learners to develop the ability to engage with, interact with, and derive benefit from learning environments which are not directly mediated by a teacher. Drawing on learner conceptualisations of distance language learning I argue that learners develop this ability largely by constructing a personally meaningful interface with the learning context, and that strategies play a key role in this regard. In the latter half of the chapter I focus on a series of landmark studies, identifying how they illuminate important aspects of independent language learning, extend our understanding of strategies and strategy development and provide insights into how students use strategies within independent learning contexts. The following three sections provide historical and theoretical background, while the two main sections in the remainder of the chapter provide a state of the art overview of language learning strategies in ILL.

The Emergence of Independent Language Learning

Concern for the individual learner and for learner choice, control and responsibility has been a pervasive influence on language learning and teaching for more than three decades (Brindley, 1989; Holec, 1981, 1987; Holec et al., 1996; Nunan, 1988; Rubin, 1975; Tudor, 1996), and is central to the idea and practice of independent language learning. The expectation that language learners can be independent, and that this is an important attribute and goal, underlies much of the writing on learner autonomy (Benson, 2001; Broady & Kenning, 1996; Little, 1991; Wenden, 1991), self-access learning (Sheerin, 1997), distance learning (Hurd, 2005; Murphy, 2005a, 2005b; Vanijdee, 2003; White, 2003, 2006), resource-based learning (Guillot, 1996), self-directed learning (Carver, 1984) and different forms of online learning such as tandem partnerships (Lewis & Walker, 2003). But independent in what sense? Here I explore three broad interpretations of independent language learning, the first concerning the learning context, the second outlining a philosophy of learning and the third based on learner attributes (see Figure 1.1).

Independent language learning can refer to a context or setting for language learning (Benson & Voller, 1997; Wright, 2005) in which learners develop skills in the TL often, though not always, individually. The emphasis here is on independence from the mediating presence of a teacher during the course of learning. In addition, the degree of freedom learners have to make choices (Anderson & Garrison, 1998), to select learning opportunities and to use resources according to need is highlighted. Self-access learning (Gardner, 2007), distance learning (White, 2007) and language advising (Gremmo & Castillo, 2006) represent ways of organising learning aligned to this interpretation, each of which has its own strong tradition in cultures as diverse as those of Scandinavia, the People's Republic of China, New Zealand and France.

A second dimension of independent language learning refers to a philosophy or approach to learning which aims to develop and foster independence in learners, who may or may not be in independent learning settings. Dickinson (1994), for example, argues that the most effective way of developing favourable attitudes towards independence is for teachers to prepare language learners to think about their needs and objectives and then to learn how to structure their learning. From another perspective, Candy (1991) argues that independent learning can be both a goal and a process and that the two are intertwined. Paul (1990: 37) captures both goal and process aspects, suggesting that the most important criterion for success in distance education should relate to learner independence and that 'the ultimate challenge ... is to develop each individual's capacity to look after his or her own learning needs'. This approach, promoting learner independence, has been highly influential within the learner autonomy movement (Benson, 2001). I shall shortly return to examining the relationship between learner autonomy and learner...