Learning and Content

In this chapter readers will explore:

• the complex mapping among students, the tools and methods used for learning, and the learning problems,
• the different types of learning as reflected in the taxonomy of learning types,
• the impact of learning by doing,
• the impact of different media on different learning objectives,
• the history of intelligent tutoring systems,
• the components of intelligent tutoring systems,
• standards for content,
• examples and patterns of content production in higher education institutions, and
• the extensive organizational commitment required for content production.

Introduction

Under what conditions does learning occur? The dream of digital content developers is that students can interact with computers in ways that would have otherwise been restricted to the interaction between students and teachers. Since at least the 1960s some educators have been attracted to the possibilities of using computers and networks to support learning. Have the anticipated impacts followed the expectations of the enthusiasts?

The efforts to apply computers and networks to learning have been so many and so diverse that the terminology that applies is also varied. At the level of an individual student learning online, some of the terms that have been applied to the technology include: courseware, learning technology systems, computer-based training systems, electronic performance support systems, computer-assisted instruction systems, intelligent tutoring systems, education and training technology, Web-based instruction systems, and interactive learning environments. In this chapter the preferred synonym will be 'courseware' and refers to the content plus technology that is used to support individual learning.

People have a long history across generations of dealing effectively with paper forms of information. Should paper be replaced with computer forms? Or might the better solution be complementary combinations of paper and digital media?

A wide range of tools is available to educators, but what experience has been gained in the application to learning. Unfortunately, the wealth of experience does not distill easily into detailed guidance about what to do next. The many developments in the field have often been one without proper reference to another. Even the terminology used by the developers has not been consistent. Thus comparing one observation to another observation is fraught with difficulties of knowing whether one person's apples are the same as another person's apples or whether apples are instead being compared to oranges. How will agreement arise about what has been done?

Learning and Pedagogy

Some psychologists specialize in learning psychology; some educators specialize in pedagogy or the art of teaching. What is known about learning and teaching?

Taxonomy of Learning Types

A group of educational psychologists developed a classification of levels of learning. This became taxonomy, sometimes called Bloom's taxonomy that included three overlapping domains: the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (DLRN, 1997 and Bloom, 1956).

Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills: Bloom's taxonomy identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, at the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to evaluation at the highest level.

For a teacher to help a student integrate new knowledge into the student's existing models of the self or the environment, the teacher must help the student identify the relationships between what the student already knows and what is new to be learned. Giving students questions to answer that stretch their thinking about the new knowledge typically does this. Below are the six cognitive levels as they correspond to questions that a teacher might ask to help a student learn:

• Knowledge involves recall of information and relates to questions such as whom, what, when, where, how ...?

• Comprehension involves organizing and selecting facts and ideas, and asks how would you describe in your own words?

• Application is problem solving or use of facts, rules and principles. Typical questions take the form: How is ... an example of ...? How is ... related to ...?

• Analysis is separation of a whole into component parts. Questions include: What are the parts or features of ...? How does ... contrast with ...?

• Synthesis is the combination of ideas to form a new whole. Questions include: What would you predict from ...? How would you create a new ...?

• Evaluation is the development of opinions, judgments or decisions. Typical questions are: What is the most important ...? What criteria would you use to assess ...?

Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility and ability to listen and respond in interactions with others. The depth and breadth of information processed and what and how much is learned and remembered is influenced by

• self-awareness and beliefs about self and one's learning ability (personal control, competence and ability);

• clarity and saliency of personal goals;

• personal expectations for success or failure;

• affect, emotion and general states of mind; and

• the resulting motivation to learn.

Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by grace and actions which demonstrate the motor skills such as use of precision instruments or tools.

Basic principles of learning motivation and effective instruction apply to all groups of learners. However, learners differ in their preferences for learning mode and strategies, the pace at which they learn, and unique capabilities in particular areas. These differences are a function of both environment and heredity.

Learning by Doing

Some say that students will learn better when they can test the models they are learning in real world situations. Educators who are also proponents of using the computer in education sometimes claim that learning by doing is vital and that computers can support this. This approach is also called constructivist learning (Jonassen, 2000).

Roger Schank directs the Institute for the Learning Sciences at Northwestern University, Illinois, USA. Schank (1997, 2000) claims that the number one problem with education is:

Schools act as if learning can be dissociated from doing. There really is no learning without doing.

Learning by doing can be realized in any discipline. For instance, students can explore the history of the American Civil War by constructing an economic model of factors motivating the North and the South. Such a learning-by-doing approach contrasts with an approach in which students are asked to read a chapter about the American Civil War and then to...