From Structure to Action

The Concepts of "Substance" (che [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) and "Function" (yong [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) in Gwon Geun's Philosophy

Halla Kim

1. INTRODUCTION

The concepts of substance and function are important philosophical categories that have been influential in the history of Korean philosophy. They are found not only in the Buddhist philosophies of Wonhyo [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (617–686 CE), Jinul [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (1158–1210), and Gihwa [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (1376–1433) but also in the school of Neo-Confucianism, which dominated the Korean spirituality from the fourteenth century until the end of the nineteenth century. In this chapter, I discuss the classical Neo-Confucianism of Gwon Geun [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (Yangchon [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], 1352–1409) and show that he presents a delicate and sophisticated theory in his appropriation and development of substance and function. Part of what I will suggest in this chapter is that the concepts of substance and function in Gwon's system were developed in complex ways within the context of the cosmology and psychology of sage learning along with the notion of principle (li [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). Much in the spirit of the Cheng-Zhu teachings, he develops the concept of substance primarily as the underlying structure of reality (or a relevant portion thereof) that can, by way of its constant nature, ground and govern the changing world of action, which is expressed as its function. This is most perspicuously seen in Gwon's clear and accessible account of Zhu Xi's [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] quite distinctive interpretation of the [Yellow] River Diagram (hado [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) and Luo Shu [Square] (nakseo [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). Some of Gwon's writings thus nicely present symbolic illustrations of Cheng-Zhu teaching as a further example of his tendency to explain philosophy diagrammatically. Finally, it is suggested that while this theory is motivated by Gwon's peculiar view of what is at stake in moral psychology as it emphasizes the structural component of human nature that ends with action, it ultimately serves to substantiate Gwon's metaphysical view that heaven and humans are one (cheonin hapilseol [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]).

2. GWON ON SUBSTANCE AND FUNCTION

Gwon is a pivotal figure in the early stage of Neo-Confucianism in Korea. He is not only one of the earliest ideological founders of the new dynasty of Joseon [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (1392–1910) but also the progenitor of the Korean form of Neo-Confucianism with his emphasis on the importance of principle and also for the way that he paid particular attention to the roles that feelings play in our moral life, thus paving way for the later emergence of the great Four-Seven Debate in Korea.

For Gwon, principle is at the center of the myriad things in the entire universe. Principle is the intangible and abstract yet active and dynamic metaphysical principle of things. It is the principle of not only being of all things in the world but also their normative source, that is, the source of good in the world. Thus, principle is good intrinsically yet also transcendentally, going well beyond the confines of the manifested, phenomenal world.

What is more, human nature is none other than this very same principle concretely exemplified in humans. So, in this respect, human nature is innately good. A person has a heart-mind (sim [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) whose nature (seong [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) is endowed by heaven. Since human nature is nothing other than principle, which is in the mind of a person, the mind must innately possess principle. Note that principle itself does not move but it sets the limits on what can move in the phenomenal world. This is because principle itself is the organizing principle of reality that, while not visible, provides the structure and pattern for all phenomena. For Gwon, what provides such structure and pattern can't be empty, as Buddhists suggest, so principle must be real. Principle is part of the furniture of reality. In a nutshell, principle is a real principle (silli [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]) that actively governs the world. When the function of principle as the fountain of all beings in the universe is brought into relief, principle is called the Supreme Ultimate (taegeuk [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). The Supreme Ultimate thus refers to the ontological source of the development of things in the world, which it generates by way of its polarity. For the Cheng-Zhu School and almost every Neo-Confucian, each and every thing in the universe contains within itself all of the principles of the universe. All things express the Supreme Ultimate to varying degrees. In other words, even though abstract, principle is not limited to abstraction but exists ubiquitously in the universe as a dominating force that controls qi ([TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII]). On this point, Gwon closely follows Zhu Xi as the latter says: "There is movement and calmness in the Supreme Ultimate and this is the flow of the Mandate of Heaven." Principle, the Way, and the Supreme Ultimate are all equal to the Mandate of Heaven that flows freely in the universe. In this sense, we may say that principle is what makes possible materialization of ethical ideals.

Now, for Gwon, all things in the universe can be considered in terms of two aspects, that is, substance and function. In particular, we can speak of a process or a complex consisting of substance and function. Even though Gwon does not formally define the concept of substance-function, we may say that for him substance refers to the underlying structure of something that provides the ground for its changes within the world. Function refers to what is manifested...