ROMAPHOBIA: MARGINALIZATION AND STIGMATIZATION IN EUROPE

Today, Roma are one of the most marginalized groups in Europe, with anti-Roma attitudes on the rise. In many societies it is perfectly acceptable to denigrate Roma by invoking so-called traits and characteristics that all Roma supposedly possess. These qualities are invariably negative: Roma, as a group, are accused of criminality, deviancy, and living parasitic lifestyles. Romaphobia is the hatred or fear of those individuals perceived as being Roma, Gypsy or Traveller; it involves the negative ascription of group identity and can result in marginalization, persecution and violence. Romaphobia is a manifestation of racism: it is cut from the same cloth. Romaphobia is no different in form and content to Islamophobia or anti-Semitism, both of which are on the rise in Europe, but its causes can be particularized. There is something specific about Romaphobia, even if its racist core is familiar. I intend to explore the specifics. Instead of detailing manifestations of Romaphobia, this book uncovers the causes of racism towards Roma communities and points to constructive ways to combat Romaphobia.

While defining Roma is challenging due to the prevalence of multiple societal and political-legal representations (McGarry 2014), I follow the Council of Europe's (2012) definition: 'Roma' includes 'Roma, Sinti, Kale, and related groups in Europe, including Travellers and the Eastern groups (Dom and Lom) and covers the wide diversity of the groups concerned including persons who identify themselves as Gypsies'. Roma number between 10 million and 12 million people and are present in every state in Europe. Let me start with a simple but illuminating fact: legally sanctioned forms of discrimination against Roma have receded but anti-Roma prejudice persists – indeed, Roma are more segregated and unequal than ever before. This requires investigation. The extensive list of negative stereotypes of Roma, Gypsies and Travellers is instructive and depressing: Roma are regarded as a menace, a scourge and a disease, as secretive, unadaptable and ungovernable. But why? Why are Roma so vilified in every society and in every state in which they reside? Why is it somehow acceptable to discuss Roma in terms we would not apply to other communities? I want to know why this is the case for several reasons. First, like homophobia and Islamophobia, Romaphobia is an irrational fear that serves political ends: it is man-made and thus can be confronted and ultimately changed. In order to do this we need to understand why Romaphobia exists. Second, any attempt to improve the social, economic and political position of Roma must grapple with the root causes of anti-Roma prejudice. Policy interventions in education, employment, housing and health are doomed to failure unless they meet the challenge of Romaphobia head on. Only by understanding the causes of Romaphobia can meaningful solutions be found. Third, the issue of responsibility is oft discussed but a common solution has found little traction. Who is responsible for the integration of Roma communities (if we agree that integration is the goal anyway)? International organizations, national governments and civil society have failed to address the most pressing socio-economic concerns of this group, and the socio-economic position of Roma has actually deteriorated in the last thirty years across Europe. So, whose fault is that? Many Roma have been unable to mobilize politically in a significant manner to articulate their needs and interests because of structural disadvantages, yet failure to improve their condition is met with accusations from the majority that Roma are helpless and hopeless. It is commonly believed that Roma do not want to integrate so should be left alone to inhabit a parallel society. However, I intend to show that Roma have never lived separate from the majority; indeed, their perceived difference has been harnessed by the state and by other actors to foster national unity, with disastrous results for Roma, who in the process have been constructed as the perennial outsider community that does not belong.

Roma have never been so high up the political agenda of national governments and the European Union, with significant media interest in Roma communities (on television and film and in books). However, despite this spike in interest, there is no clear understanding of why Roma are so vilified and so excluded in every state in which they reside. Romaphobia diverts attention from the current academic and policy trends of documenting the regrettable situation of Roma across Europe and argues that it is crucial to understand the causes of Romaphobia and not just its consequences. It challenges some of the dominant trends in academic literature on Roma and seeks to explain who Roma are. Many academics who work on Roma start by asking why Roma are the poorest, most vilified minority group in Europe, but somehow we lose our way as we evidence instances of anti-Roma prejudice and draw attention to the discrimination and persecution of Roma communities and individuals across Europe. Of course, it is imperative that we spotlight violence against Roma, the destruction of housing by authorities, the targeting and expulsion of Roma communities, ethnic profiling by the police, school segregation of Romani children, coercive sterilization of Roma women, intimidation, hate speech by elected representatives from across the political spectrum, and accusations of child abduction. However, we lack any clear comprehension of where this prejudice comes from or how it is sustained. Romaphobia therefore seeks to uncover distinct processes of exclusion and persecution by exploring the relationship between identity, territory and belonging.

I use 'Romaphobia' in preference to other similar terms such as anti-Tsiganism or anti-Gypsyism partly because 'Gypsy' and 'Tsigan' are considered offensive and many prefer the endonym 'Roma'. Romaphobia does have a number of drawbacks because it does not refer to those who do not consider themselves 'Roma' or who are not identified by others as such. Anti-Tsiganism/anti-Ziganism and anti-Gypsyism help capture the negative attitudes and legacies of stigmatization regarding those whom others consider to be 'Gypsies', 'Tsigan' or 'Zigans'. I prefer the term Romaphobia because it captures the fear that motivates negative attitudes towards Roma communities. While there are certain benefits of fear, such as foresight and caution, it can also lead to factionalism. In History, Thucydides argues that fear is necessary and beneficial, acting as an important incentive to the formation of states, that it can be found everywhere, and that therefore fear is fundamental to the human condition. The collective fear of Roma...