Introduction

1.0 The Aim of the Book

The overarching aim of the book is to consider from two theoretical and empirical perspectives (cognitive and sociocultural) the potential of written CF to facilitate L2 development and some of the factors that may explain why written CF may or may not lead to L2 development. Thus, our focus is on the learning of the L2 rather than on the editing of L2 writing for composition and other such purposes.

We begin our discussion of this chapter (Section 1.1) with a consideration of the two key terms referred to in the aim: written CF and L2 development. This is followed by a discussion of the importance of written CF for L2 development (Section 1.2) and an outline of the structure and focus of Chapters 2–6 (Section 1.3).

1.1 Defining Key Terms

1.1.1 Written CF

Written CF is a written response to a linguistic error that has been made in the writing of a text by an L2 learner. It seeks to either correct the inaccurate usage or provide information about where the error has occurred and/or about the cause of the error and how it may be corrected. If the focus is on correcting the error, the response will be in the form of a direct error correction. If the focus is on locating the error so that the learner can then attempt to correct it, an indirect response will be given. Typically, this will be provided as an underlining or circling of the error or by means of a line-by-line error tally in the margin of the text. As the third type of response, meta-linguistic information (e.g. explanations/rules and examples of correct usage) may be provided to help the learner understand why the error has occurred and how to correct it. Sometimes the meta-linguistic feedback may be in the form of a code (e.g. PT for Past Tense error). It is generally understood that written CF is provided on linguistic errors rather than on content or organisational errors or issues. Most frequently, it has tended to focus on grammatical errors but it can also be provided on lexical and non-grammatical errors (e.g. punctuation, spelling). Most L2 learners receive written CF from their language class teachers but sometimes they also receive it from native and more advanced non-native speakers outside the language classroom or from their peersin peer response activities. Although written CF has traditionally been delivered on hard paper copies of students' texts, accompanied at times by oral face-to-face conferences, it is increasingly being delivered electronically via synchronous or asynchronous modes of communication and by means of a range of web-based commenting software.

1.1.2 L2 development

L2 development is about the processes and stages involved in developing knowledge of the L2 and about how to use it accurately as a native speaker/writer or a near native speaker/writer would be expected to use it. The development process begins immediately after some form of L2 information input (in this case, by means of written CF) has been provided and may continue for months or years, depending on the goals, proficiency and mastery of the L2 learner.

Sometimes the construct L2 development is used interchangeably with L2 learning and L2 acquisition but, in purist terms, each has its own particular focus or shade of meaning. The choice of terms may also depend on the theoretical perspective it is situated within (see discussion in Chapter 4). L2 learning and L2 development are most often used interchangeably to refer to the process or processes of learning from the learner's perspective even though the term L2 development is, arguably, more about specific stages in the learning process. L2 acquisition can be understood in terms of either the acquired end-product (native speaker mastery and competence) or the process of acquiring the L2 and, in this regard, is similar to the process of L2 learning and L2 development.

In this book, we use the term L2 development because we believe it is a more precise term, namely, one that includes reference to any or all of the stages in the development of the L2, from the initial written CF input stage to the implicit, automatised output stage. From a sociocultural perspective, progress also includes a greater ability to self-correct. It is important to note that progress may not always be linear and forward-moving; it may sometimes involve small steps, both forwards and backwards, in the processing and use of the feedback.

Relating these definitions/explanations to the central aim of the book, it can be seen that our focus is on understanding whether or not written CF, in any of its forms, has the potential to facilitate L2 development over time. To understand its potential, we examine, in Chapters 2 and 4, the two theoretical perspectives on how and why written CF might be able to target L2 errors and facilitate development. Then, in Chapters 3 and 5, we review the empirical research to see whether or not, and the extent to which, written CF has been found to assist L2 development. In our examination of the extent of its effectiveness, we consider not only the cognitive processing conditions but also the context-related and individual learner factors or variables that have been hypothesised and shown to facilitate or impede the effectiveness of written CF for L2 development. Before we outline the focus of each Chapter, we discuss the importance of written CF as a topic of investigation.

1.2 The Importance of Written CF for L2 Development

A number of reasons can be given for discussing the potential of written CF for L2 development. The first concerns the amount of time that many language teachers spend correcting the written errors that their students make. Although some teachers do not agree that written CF is necessary or effective, most do, to some extent at least. Those who are sceptical of its value tend to base this view on their observations of students who fail to respond to the feedback they are given or who fail to retain over time the knowledge they appear to have gained immediately after feedback has been provided (as evident in revised and/or new texts). Nevertheless, many teachers are of the view that some of their students will benefit from some of the feedback they receive on some occasions at least, and that some improvement is better than no improvement or no opportunity for improvement. Thus, from a pedagogical perspective, questions concerning the potential of written CF for L2 development and factors that may facilitate and/or impede the development process are of interest and importance to teachers who want to know whether their practices are likely to benefit their learners' development.

Although most teachers assume, to some extent at least, that giving their students written CF contributes to the learning process in some way (Ferris, 2003), Truscott's (1996) call for the abandonment of the practice challenged these...