Definitional and Conceptual Issues in Social–Emotional Learning

Comprehensive longitudinal studies, meta-analyses, and literature reviews have documented that poor peer relations in childhood are predictive of serious adjustment difficulties in adolescence and early adulthood (Cowen, Pedersen, Babigian, Izzo, & Trost, 1973; Newcomb, Bukowski, & Pattee, 1993a; Parker & Asher, 1987; Prinstein, Rancourt, Guerry, & Browne, 2009). These difficulties in social–behavioral competence and peer relations lead to short-term, intermediate, and long-term challenges in the educational, psychosocial, and vocational domains of functioning (Dodge, Dishion, & Lansford, 2006; Kupersmidt, Coie, & Dodge, 1990; Newcomb et al., 1993a). This line of research accumulated over the past 35 years has prompted an intense interest in the development of preventive interventions among researchers studying the deleterious effects of peer relationship difficulties. This logic was based on the notion that timely interventions focusing on improving childhood peer relations could reduce exposure to the risks associated with peer rejection and social isolation, promote healthy socialization, and foster long-term positive outcomes (Bierman, 2004; La Greca, 1993; Rubin, Bukowski, & Laursen, 2009).

A great deal of attention over the last 10 years has focused on children's social–emotional competence and includes assessment and intervention with social skills that contribute to the development of these social–emotional competencies. More recently, there has been a push by educators, policymakers, and researchers to focus on promoting the development of children's social–emotional competencies within the school context. This is evidenced by the recent inclusion of social–emotional learning (SEL) as distinct state learning standards in school districts across the country because these competencies are linked to positive academic and psychological outcomes (Weissberg, Durlak, Domitrovich, & Gullotta, 2015). A large corpus of research involving over 500 evaluations from preschool to higher education has demonstrated the effectiveness of universal school-based SEL interventions (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2012).

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF SOCIAL COMPETENCE

The construct of social competence has been conceptualized and operationalized from many different perspectives and theoretical orientations across the various specialties within psychology, special education, and applied behavior analysis. An adequate conceptualization of social competence is important because it guides evidence-based assessment and intervention strategies. At least three general conceptualizations of the construct of social competence have been discussed in the research literature. Sociometric Conceptualization One conceptualization is termed the sociometric conceptualization of social competence. This approach primarily uses indices of sociometric status to operationalize social competence. As such, individuals who are rejected or neglected by peers are considered to be socially incompetent and individuals who are accepted or popular with peers are considered to be socially competent. An individual's sociometric status refers to how a person perceives others in terms of likes and dislikes and how other persons perceive the individual (Hartup, 2009). Sociometric status is based on a large amount of information including who wants to associate with whom, who wants to engage is certain social activities with others, and who likes or dislikes someone within a social network. Comprehensive sociometric assessments are typically based on indices of social preference and social impact (Peery, 1979) and derivations of these constructs have been used to classify individuals as rejected, neglected, controversial, and popular (Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli, 1982).

Despite its relative objectivity, the major drawback of a sociometric conceptualization of social competence is that it often cannot identify the specific behaviors within specific situations that lead to peer acceptance or rejection. Some research does suggest that the behavioral correlates of various sociometric statuses are topographically different. For example, the behavioral correlates of peer rejection typically include behaviors such as aggressive behavior, impulsivity, and negative social interactions with peers (Coie, Dodge, & Kupersmidt, 1990). In contrast, the behavioral correlates of neglected sociometric status include behaviors such as anxiety, social withdrawal, depression, and low rates of positive social interaction (Newcomb et al., 1993a). These behavioral correlates, however, are relatively low in magnitude and most certainly do not entirely explain or account for an individual's particular sociometric status.

In addition, positive or negative sociometric status can occur for reasons that have nothing to do with social skills strengths or weaknesses. For example, it has been shown that physical, attractiveness/unattractiveness, positive/negative reputational biases, critical negative behavioral events, race/ethnicity, and cross-sex nominations are related to positive or negative sociometric status (Rubin et al., 2009).

Social Learning Theory

Other researchers and theorists have used a social learning conceptualization of the social skill construct (Elliott & Gresham, 2008; Gresham & Elliott, 2008). In this view, numerous variables account for an individual's deficiencies in prosocial behavior and excesses in competing problem behaviors. Figure 1.1 depicts a model that identifies five major reasons for deficient social skills functioning: (1) lack of knowledge, (2) lack of practice and/or feedback, (3) absence or inattention to social cues, (4) lack of reinforcement, and (5) presence of competing problem behaviors. This particular model uses three distinct theoretical learning theories to explain social skill deficiencies and excessive competing problem behaviors.

Social learning theory, based on the early work of Bandura (1977, 1986), utilizes the concept of vicarious learning and the role of cognitive–mediational processes to explain which environmental events are attended to, retained, and subsequently performed when a person is exposed to modeling stimuli. The concept of reciprocal determinism is...