BASIC PATIENT ASSESSMENTS

Station 1: HEART RATE AND RESPIRATORY RATE

Mrs Bradbury has pelvic pain and has just been transferred to your ward from the Emergency Department. Please record Mrs Bradbury's heart rate and respiratory rate.

Objectives

• Measuring and interpreting the radial pulse

• Measuring and interpreting the respiratory rate

General Advice

• Always wash your hands before and after patient contact and be sure to obtain consent before starting the procedure

• At the end of the procedure, discuss your findings with the patient and record them appropriately in the notes

Measuring Heart Rate

1. Check that the patient is in a comfortable position with the arm supported and the lower arm exposed

2. Place your index and middle finger pads over the lateral aspect of the wrist at the site of the radial pulse (Fig 1.1)

3. Once identified, assess the rate and rhythm of the radial pulse for 1 minute (in practice, this is usually assessed over 15 seconds and multiplied by four)

Measuring Respiratory Rate

1. Check that the patient is in a comfortable position with the chest exposed

2. Watch the chest for movement; if this is subtle, explain to the patient that you are going to place your hand on his/her chest to feel for chest wall movement

3. Assess the respiratory rate and regularity for 1 minute

4. Document your findings in the patient notes

Questions and Answers for Candidate

What are the commonest physiological causes of bradycardia?

• Athletes

• Sleep

Name two pathological causes of bradycardia

• Pharmacological: any negative chronotrope, e.g. beta (ß) blockers

• Acute myocardial infarction (particularly an inferior myocardial infarction leading to a heart block)

• Cushing's reflex: a systemic reaction to raised intracranial pressure (bradycardia, erratic breathing and widened pulse pressure)

• Hypoxia

• Hypothermia

• Hypothyroidism

Name three causes of tachypnoea

• Physiological: exercise, anxiety, excitement

• Circulatory shock: septic shock, anaphylactic shock, hypovolemic shock

• Lung pathology: pneumonia, asthma, pneumothorax

• Other pathology: heart failure, anaemia, myocardial infarction

Additional Questions to Consider

1. What medication can cause tachycardia?

2. What medication can cause bradycardia?

3. How would you assess a patient with tachypnoea?

4. Why is it important to take the heart rate manually rather than relying on a machine?

5. What signs of respiratory distress might you see in a patient with tachypnoea?

Station 2: OXYGEN SATURATION

Mr Michael has just walked back from the toilet and now feels breathless. Please record Mr Michael's oxygen saturation.

Objectives

• Measuring and interpreting oxygen saturation

General Advice

• Always wash your hands before and after patient contact and obtain consent before starting the procedure

• At the end of the procedure, discuss your findings with the patient and record them appropriately in the notes

Measuring Oxygen Saturation

1. Ensure that the patient is comfortable and select a forefinger that is clean and without nail polish (Fig 1.2)

2. Correctly position the oxygen saturation probe onto the end of the forefinger and ensure the machine is turned on

3. Read off the oxygen saturation

4. Note whether the patient is breathing room air or is receiving supplementary oxygen

Questions and Answers for Candidate

Where can an oxygen probe be placed?

• Finger

• Toe

• Ear lobe

Name two causes of hypoxaemia

• Low concentration of inspired oxygen, e.g. breathing at high altitude

• Right to left shunting (blood bypasses the lungs), e.g. Eisenmenger's syndrome

• Ventilation-perfusion mismatch, e.g. pneumonia, pulmonary oedema

• Diffusion impairment, e.g. interstitial lung disease

• Hypoventilation, e.g. brain stem tumour, intracerebral haemorrhage, Guillain-Barré syndrome

Additional Questions to Consider

1. How would you assess a patient found to be hypoxaemic?

2. What other investigations would you undertake in a patient found to be hypoxaemic?

3. What are the different ways you might deliver oxygen to a patient?

4. When would you perform an arterial blood gas in a patient with low oxygen saturations?

5. What is the normal range of oxygen saturations, and how would you determine a patient's oxygen saturation target?

Station 3: BLOOD PRESSURE

Mrs Space has recently stopped her anti-hypertensive medication. Please check her blood pressure (BP).

Objectives

• Measuring and interpreting BP using manual and electronic techniques

General Advice

• Always wash your hands before and after patient contact and obtain valid consent before performing the procedure

• At the end of the procedure, discuss your findings with the patient and record them appropriately in the notes

• Ensure that the patient is comfortable and adequately expose the right arm

• Correctly position the arm so it is supported. The point at which you will measure the BP in the arm should be approximately level with the heart

• Select an appropriately sized cuff

For the Manual Technique

1. Correctly place the BP cuff on the patient's arm (Fig 1.3)

2. Locate the brachial artery (usually found at the medial border of the antecubital fossa, medial to the biceps tendon)

3. Inflate the cuff until the pulse becomes impalpable

4. Note the pressure on the manometer

5. Deflate the cuff and place the stethoscope over the brachial artery (Fig 1.4)

6. Re-inflate the cuff to a pressure 20 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) higher than that noted previously

7. Deflate the cuff by 2mmHg per second

8. Note the pressure at which you hear the first heart sounds (systolic blood pressure)

9. Continue to deflate the cuff and note the pressure at which the heart sounds completely disappear (diastolic blood pressure)

For an Automatic Electronic Device

1. Correctly place the blood pressure cuff on the patient's arm

2. Switch on the blood pressure device and press the start button

3. Note the blood pressure reading and document your findings on the patient's observation chart

Questions and Answers for Candidate

What can make a BP recording inaccurate?

• If the patient is anxious

• If the patient has not adequately rested before the blood pressure reading

• If the BP cuff size is incorrect

• If only one BP reading is taken

In what situations would it be advisable to take the BP from the left arm?

• If the right arm has an intravenous (IV) infusion in situ

• If the right arm is paralysed

• If there is lymphoedema in the right arm

• If there is a fistula in the right arm

• Patient preference

Additional Questions to Consider

1. How is hypertension diagnosed?

2. What lifestyle advice can be given to patients with high BP?

3. What are the common first-line medications for hypertension?

4. What is malignant hypertension? How is this assessed and managed?

5. How might ethnicity affect choice of medication in treating hypertension?

Station 4: LYING AND STANDING BLOOD PRESSURE

Mrs Monty is a 69 year-old woman who presents to you in the Emergency Department with recurrent falls. Please perform a lying and standing BP and relay your findings.

Objectives

• Performing lying and standing BP

• Interpreting results of lying and standing BP

General Advice

• Lying and standing BP can be used to diagnose (or demonstrate) postural hypotension. Ensure that you have time to perform the examination properly and you are not rushing the patient, as this may falsely elevate their BP reading

Performing Lying and Standing BP

1. Introduce yourself to the patient and obtain valid consent

2. Position the patient supine and ensure that they have been lying there for at least five minutes (Fig 1.5)

3. Take the patient's BP as outlined previously in station 1.3

4. Document the lying systolic and diastolic pressures

5. Leave the cuff in place and ask the patient to stand (Fig 1.6)

6. Inform the patient they need to stand for one minute before you will re-take the BP

7. Ensure the arm is supported at the level of the heart

8. Re-take the BP as outlined previously

9. Remove the cuff and allow the patient to sit

10. Document the standing systolic and diastolic pressures

11. Explain your findings to the patient

Present Your Findings

Mrs Monty is a 69 year-old woman who has presented with a fall. On examination her, lying BP was 146/82mmHg and her standing BP was 118/78mmHg. She therefore has a postural systolic drop of greater that 20mmHg, which is suggestive of postural hypotension. I would like to determine the cause of her postural hypotension, so I would take a full history and examine her with a particular focus on the cardiovascular exam and her fluid status. I would also look at the observations chart, and review her current medications.

Questions and Answers for Candidate

How would you define postural hypotension?

• Postural (or orthostatic) hypotension is defined as a fall in systolic BP >20mmHg or a drop in diastolic BP >10mmHg when a patient assumes a standing position as compared to when they are lying down

Describe the management for a well patient with postural hypotension

• Treat any reversible causes, such as poor fluid intake or medications like antihypertensives

• Conservative measures (e.g. not standing up too quickly)

• Compression bandaging could be considered to improve venous return

• If conservative measures fail, consider specific medication such as fludrocortisone

Additional Questions to Consider

1. What are the signs and symptoms of postural hypotension?

2. What is a tilt table test?

3. How might postural hypotension present?

4. What is postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome?

5. What are the problems with interpreting lying and standing BPs?

Station 5: ANKLE BRACHIAL PRESSURE INDEX

Mr Fisher is a 68-year-old man who presents to your clinic with pain and cramping in his left lower leg. The pain occurs on walking and is relieved by rest. Mr Fisher is a smoker and is receiving medical treatment for hyperlipidaemia and hypertension. Please measure the Ankle Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) and tell the examiner your interpretation of the findings

Objectives

• Measuring and interpreting ABPI readings

General Advice

• Make sure that you have protected any ulcers that may be present

Measuring ABPI

1. Introduce yourself to the patient and obtain valid consent

2. Position the patient supine to remove the effect of gravity on blood flow

3. Place an appropriately sized cuff around the right calf

4. Locate the dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial pulse (Fig 1.7)

5. Place the Doppler gel and probe on the skin near to where you expect to find the pulse (Fig 1.8)

6. Listen for the sound of blood flow, a 'whoosh-whoosh' sound

7. Inflate the cuff until the sound of blood flow has disappeared

8. Deflate the cuff by 2mmHg/second until you hear the blood flow returning and note this ankle systolic pressure

9. Place an appropriately sized cuff around the patient's right arm

10. Locate the brachial pulse at the medial border of the antecubital fossa (Fig 1.9)

11. Repeat steps 5-8, noting the brachial systolic pressure

12. Repeat steps 3-11 in the opposite limbs

13. Calculate ABPI = Ankle Systolic Pressure/Branchial Systolic Pressure

14. Explain the significance of ABPI to patient and document findings

Present Your Findings

Mr Fisher is a 68-year-old man who has presented with intermittent claudication. He has known hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. On examination, his ankle systolic pressure is 80 mmHg and his brachial systolic pressure is 130 mmHg. His ABPI is therefore 0.6; this result, in conjunction with his symptoms, suggests peripheral vascular disease. I would like to take a full history, and examination. He may benefit from referral to the vascular surgeons, and imaging such as an arterial duplex scan.

Questions and Answers for Candidate

How might you investigate someone with an ABPI suggesting peripheral vascular disease?

• I would check the patient's blood sugar, and lipid profile because of possible underlying atherosclerosis. An electrocardiogram (ECG) may also be helpful if there are any concerns about associated ischemic heart disease. I would then refer them for an arterial duplex scan. They may also benefit from a computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance angiogram

Give four risk factors for peripheral arterial disease

• Smoking

• Obesity

• Hypertension

• Hypercholesterolaemia

• Diabetes

• Male

• Family history

Additional Questions to Consider

1. What are the symptoms of peripheral arterial disease?

2. What are the signs of critical limb ischaemia?

3. What are the management options for critical limb ischaemia?

4. Describe the arterial anatomy of the lower limb

5. What is the anatomical location of the dorsalis pedis pulse?

Station 6: BLOOD GLUCOSE

Mrs Juniper is a known insulin-dependent diabetic. Please record Mrs Juniper's blood glucose prior to her lunch.

Objectives

• Measuring and interpreting blood glucose

General Advice

• Obtain valid consent

• Ensure you wear gloves for this procedure

• Prior to approaching the patient, check that the blood glucose monitor is working, and has been calibrated correctly, and that the recording strips are in date

• At the end of the procedure, discuss your findings with the patient and record them appropriately in the notes

Measuring Blood Glucose

1. Establish when the patient last ate

2. Ensure the patient is comfortable, and clean the target finger with cotton wool and water

3. Put on a pair of non-sterile gloves

4. Insert a test strip into the glucose monitor

5. On the side of the finger, use a single use lancet to prick the finger and immediately dispose of the lancet in a sharps bin (Fig 1.10)

6. Wait for a drop of blood to appear

7. Slowly bring the tip of the test strip perpendicular to the blood drop. As the strip touches the blood, a small amount of blood should get absorbed into the electronic part of the test strip. A beep signifies this has happened correctly (Fig 1.11)

8. Wait for the result to be calculated

9. Stop bleeding with cotton wool and apply a plaster if necessary

10. Dispose of the test strip and wash your hands

Questions and Answers for Candidate

How might you measure long term blood glucose control in a diabetic?

• Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) test, which indicates the blood glucose control over the previous three months

Give two risk factors for Type II Diabetes

• Hypertension

• Hypercholesterolemia

• Previous gestational diabetes

• Increased body mass index (BMI)

• Family history of type II diabetes

• Older age

Give three complications of diabetes

• Diabetic nephropathy

• Diabetic retinopathy

• Diabetic neuropathy

• Diabetic foot ulcers

• Macrovascular disease (e.g. myocardial infarction and stroke)

Additional Questions to Consider

1. How might a hypoglycaemic episodes present? How do you manage hypoglycaemia?

2. How do you diagnose diabetes?

3. How can you treat Type I Diabetes?

4. How can you treat Type II Diabetes?

5. What lifestyle advice should you give a patient with diabetes?

Station 7: MRSA SWAB

Mr Nut is attending a pre-operative appointment. Please perform a Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) swab on him

Objectives

• Performing an MRSA swab

General Advice

• Ensure you wear gloves for this procedure and obtain valid consent

• Explain to the patient why hospital policy requires every patient to have a MRSA swab on admission: determining whether a patient has MRSA before admission allows prompt treatment to remove the bacteria

Performing an MRSA Swab

1. Ensure the patient is comfortable

2. Gently swab both sides of the nasal septum and through both nostrils with a single swab (Fig 1.12)

Note: Swabs should not be moistened; the only exception is for very dry skin sites. For these, swabs moistened with sterile water can be used

3. Place swabs in transport medium and specify MRSA screening on the request form

Questions and Answers for Candidate

What happens if an inpatient is found to be MRSA positive?

• The patient will be moved to a side-room and barrier nursed

• The patient will be started on treatment according to the hospital policy

• In the context of a suspected infection in the patient, your antimicrobial options would have to consider covering MRSA infection

How is MRSA spread?

• The primary means by which it is spread is physical contact. This is either direct skin-to-skin contact, or contact with an object contaminated with MRSA