Über die Autorin bzw. den Autor

John Tutino teaches the history of Mexico and the Americas in the History Department and the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University. He is the author of From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750-1940, and a co-editor of Cycles of Conflict, Centuries of Change: Crisis, Reform, and Revolution in Mexico, also published by Duke University Press.

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Making a New World

Duke University Press

Contents

LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS............................................................................................................................................ixPROLOGUE: Making Global History in the Spanish Empire.....................................................................................................................1A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY.....................................................................................................................................................27Introduction: A New World: The Bajío, Spanish North America, and Global Capitalism...................................................................................29Part I Making a New World THE BAJÍO AND SPANISH NORTH AMERICA, 1500–1770......................................................................................63Chapter 1. Founding the Bajío: Otomí Expansion, Chichimeca War, and Commercial Querétaro, 1500–1660..................................................65Chapter 2. Forging Spanish North America: Northward Expansions, Mining Amalgamations, and Patriarchal Communities, 1590–1700........................................121Chapter 3. New World Revivals: Silver Boom, City Lives, Awakenings, and Northward Drives, 1680–1760.................................................................159Chapter 4. Reforms, Riots, and Repressions: The Bajío in the Crisis of the 1760s.....................................................................................228Part II Forging Atlantic Capitalism THE BAJÍO, 1770–1810......................................................................................................261Chapter 5. Capitalist, Priest, and Patriarch: Don José Sánchez Espinosa and the Great Family Enterprises of Mexico City, 1780–1810........................263Chapter 6. Production, Patriarchy, and Polarization in the Cities: Guanajuato, San Miguel, and Querétaro, 1770–1810............................................300Chapter 7. The Challenge of Capitalism in Rural Communities: Production, Ethnicity, and Patriarchy from La Griega to Puerto de Nieto, 1780–1810.....................352Conclusion: The Bajío and North America in the Atlantic Crucible.....................................................................................................451Epilogue: Toward Unimagined Revolution....................................................................................................................................487Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................................................493APPENDIX A: Employers and Workers at Querétaro, 1588–1609......................................................................................................499APPENDIX B: Production, Patriarchy, and Ethnicity in the Bajío Bottomlands, 1670–1685..........................................................................509APPENDIX C: Bajío Population, 1600–1800........................................................................................................................529APPENDIX D: Eighteenth-Century Economic Indicators: Mining and Taxed Commerce.............................................................................................549APPENDIX E: The Sierra Gorda and New Santander, 1740–1760...........................................................................................................559APPENDIX F: Population, Ethnicity, Family, and Work in Rural Communities, 1791–1792.................................................................................573APPENDIX G: Tributes and Tributaries in the Querétaro District, 1807.................................................................................................609NOTES.....................................................................................................................................................................617BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................................................................665INDEX.....................................................................................................................................................................685

Chapter One

Otomí Expansion, Chichimeca War, and Commercial Querétaro, 1500–1660

THE BAJÍO WITNESSED unprecedented encounters, enduring conflicts, and transforming changes in the sixteenth century. Once a place of towns and cultivators in Mesoamerica's classic past, it was little inhabited and minimally cultivated around 1500. Mesoamerican states fought each other and mobile Chichimecas in a prolonged frontier stalemate. Then, beginning in the 1520s Mesoamericans, Europeans, and Africans arrived from the south, settled the basin, and reconstituted power, production, and culture. The foundation of Querétaro led a historic process. Otomí lords and cultivators built the town, irrigated nearby lands, and began new trades. After silver was found to the north at Zacatecas in the 1540s, Spaniards and their African slaves, Otomí and other Mesoamericans, and vast droves of cattle and sheep invaded the Bajío and the lands stretching north and west. Decades of conflict followed, as Chichimecas resisted and adapted to invasions and opportunities. Spaniards aimed to rule and profit. Yet they relied on Otomí and other native allies to fight Chichimecas, and on Mesoamericans and Africans to build a new economy. European power was uncertain and native subordination was long contested in the early Bajío.

Deep in the American interior Querétaro saw the creation of an Atlantic amalgam of Mesoamericans, Europeans, and Africans. Otomí leaders were surprisingly powerful; Otomí cultivators controlled the best, irrigated lands. Europeans struggled to assert dominance. Africans labored, yet increasingly became free. Immigrant Mexicas, Tarascans, and Otomí came and negotiated new ways of work. Spaniards promoted an Atlantic economy and an Iberian regime, yet they had to negotiate indigenous subordination and African service. Around 1600 a nascent commercial economy, an emerging labor market, and a multicultural society consolidated at Querétaro—the base of an expansive, commercial Spanish North America. Warrior entrepreneurs, Otomí and Spanish, led that foundation. The colonial state was among the many forces shaping early Querétaro and the Bajío, but rarely the most powerful. Officials struggled to favor Spanish allies, fill regime coffers, and mediate among diverse people and interests in times of economic opportunity and persistent conflict. That crucible forged an unprecedented Atlantic economy and New World society.

Before regimes and societies there are geographies. The Valle de los Chichimecas, now the Bajío, lies north of the volcanic axis that links the eastern and western Sierras near Mexico City. Between the Sierras the northern basin and plateau country is potentially fertile, thanks to...