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Terrorism Financing and State Responses

STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Contents

Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................................................................................ixAbout the Editors and Contributors........................................................................................................................................................................xiIntroduction Jeanne K. Giraldo and Harold A. Trinkunas...................................................................................................................................................1PART I: THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM AND THE RESPONSE1. The Political Economy of Terrorism Financing Jeanne K. Giraldo and Harold A. Trinkunas................................................................................................................72. Terrorism Financing Mechanisms and Policy Dilemmas Nikos Passas.......................................................................................................................................213. Organized Crime and Terrorism John T. Picarelli and Louise I. Shelley.................................................................................................................................394. Terrorist Organizations' Vulnerabilities and Inefficiencies: A Rational Choice Perspective Jacob N. Shapiro...........................................................................................565. Warning Indicators and Terrorist Finances Phil Williams...............................................................................................................................................72PART II: Case Studies of Terrorism financing and State Responses6. Financing Afghan Terrorism: Thugs, Drugs, and Creative Movements of Money Thomas H. Johnson...........................................................................................................937. Al Qaeda Finances and Funding to Affiliated Groups Victor Comras......................................................................................................................................1158. Hezbollah Finances: Funding the Party of God Matthew Levitt...........................................................................................................................................1349. Arab Government Responses to the Threat of Terrorist Financing Moyara de Moraes Ruehsen...............................................................................................................15210. Terrorism Financing in Europe Loretta Napoleoni......................................................................................................................................................17111. Terrorist Financing and Government Responses in East Africa Jessica Piombo...........................................................................................................................18512. Terrorist Financing and Government Responses in Southeast Asia Aurel Croissant and Daniel Barlow.....................................................................................................20313. Terrorist Financing and the Tri-Border Area of South America: The Challenge of Effective Governmental Response in a Permissive Environment John L. Lombardi and David J. Sanchez.....................23114. Anti-Terror Strategy, The 9/11 Commission Report, and Terrorism Financing: Implications for U.S. Policy Makers Raphael Perl..........................................................................24715. U.S. and International Responses to Terrorist Financing Anne L. Clunan...............................................................................................................................26016. Terrorist Financing: Explaining Government Responses Jeanne K. Giraldo and Harold A. Trinkunas.......................................................................................................282Notes.....................................................................................................................................................................................................297Index.....................................................................................................................................................................................................357

Chapter One

JEANNE K. GIRALDO AND HAROLD A. TRINKUNAS

A rash of terrorist attacks in the 1990s, all designed to cause mass casualties-the February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center, the March 1995 sarin gas attack in the Tokyo subway, the April 1995 bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City-seemed to signal the arrival on the scene of a new and more deadly kind of terrorism. Observers often cited the religious fundamentalism of the "new terrorists," who exhibited a degree of fanaticism apparently beyond reason or mercy, to explain their willingness to engage in attacks of unprecedented lethality. In this chapter we argue that the growing deadliness of the "new terrorism," however merciless, is actually the product of terrorists' reasoned response to loosening constraints on their behavior caused by changes in funding sources. In fact, what is new about terrorism writ large by the end of the twentieth century-and not just for the religiously motivated groups identified as part of the "new terrorism"-is the diversification of the sources of funding upon which they rely and the declining importance of state and popular support within their funding portfolios.

This chapter sketches key trends in terrorism financing over the past few decades, arguing that the acceleration of globalization and an apparent increase in the incidence of poor governance, state failure, and ungoverned areas explain the dominance of a "new" financial model in which terrorists rely increasingly upon their own licit and illicit enterprises for their funding. The chapter also develops a political economy framework, which analyzes the interests of actors within terrorist organizations and those external to the group who form part of the terrorist financial support network, to shed light on the way in which funding sources can shape the behavior of terrorist groups. A political economy framework also leads us to explore key vulnerabilities within the terrorist organization created by potentially conflicting preferences among terrorist leaders, financial middlemen, and operatives. This approach calls into question standard accounts of the efficiency and robustness of network-based terrorist organizations and the new financing model.

While terrorist organizations that depend on state sponsorship or societal support have historically faced limits on what activities are acceptable, "new terrorist" organizations such as al Qaeda and a wide variety of other self-sufficient groups find themselves increasingly able to operate free from such constraints. This approach thus provides an alternative to conventional religion-centered explanations for the increased lethality of Islamist terrorism. It also helps explain the increasing brutality of many non-religious terrorist groups as well. Using the political economy framework to understand the challenges of driving a wedge between terrorists and their funding sources under the new financing model helps us explain why...