THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY

The word north has always allured me. Something about it connotes a distant, wild land with an arresting beauty that has persisted for time immemorial. Whenever I think of such a place, the Bristol Bay region of Alaska, with its breathtaking vistas of snow-capped mountains, crystal clear waters and lush, towering evergreens, immediately comes to mind. It is where large predators like bears, wolves, and wolverines still roam freely across the vast landscape, and where one can frequently see moose and caribou, bald eagles, and innumerable species of waterfowl. It is touted for having the greatest salmon run on the planet. Stocks of five species of salmon, that are among the last unthreatened stocks worldwide, use the region's headwaters as their nurseries. Each year, upwards of 40 million salmon set the rivers here ablaze in red as they undertake a spectacular migration back from the ocean to spawn in the area's headwaters. Along the way, the migrating salmon sustain ocean-dwelling killer whales, seals, and sea lions; and once in the rivers the dead and dying salmon provide key nutrients that sustain the many plant and animal species that make up the ecosystems within the region's watersheds.

The Bristol Bay region is also known for its geological formations that hold a mother lode of gold and copper, and a highly heat resistant metal — molybdenum — that strengthens alloys of stainless steel. The deposits of these metals, which lie directly beneath the very head-water streams used by the salmon, are so enormous that if mined they could double the inventory of the United States' copper and gold; and it would mean that the United States holds the world's largest supply of molybdenum. These metals sustain the high-tech manufacturing sector of our global economy. Gold is a key element in modern electronics including computers and cell phones. Copper is used for conducting electricity in power-grid distribution systems, residential wiring and electronics, and in motors that run all sorts of machinery. Molybdenum is an irreplaceable component of stainless steel used in surgical and medical equipment, and chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing.

The desire to mine this reserve has led to much anxiety and acrimony. The debate centers on the wisdom of exploiting such an iconic and mystical place. Arguments on the one side hold that using the mineral wealth could boost the technological economy, including the innovative products and jobs that come with it. Counterarguments express worry that the mining activity would rapidly transform this wilderness area into a large industrial complex. This creates the risk that it will become a toxic wasteland that could drive the salmon to extinction, along with the species of birds and mammals that depend heavily on salmon for food. The issue is complicated by the fact that it cannot be resolved locally. Even if we never see this remote place firsthand, virtually anyone who clamors for the latest cell phone or computer technology or desires world-class health care would unwittingly have a hand in determining its fate by encouraging the exploitation of its minerals. This is little appreciated or understood because the ill effects of the mining will never directly harm most people. But the effects of transforming or destroying large wilderness areas can come back to influence humankind in a circuitous way. By virtue of supporting species and ecosystem functions, these wilderness areas also play a key role in regulating important Earth systems processes such as the global carbon cycle and thereby the climate.

This issue is emblematic of the kinds of tugs-of-war over nature that humankind increasingly faces across the globe. It is representative of the kinds of issues that ecological science is increasingly being called upon to help adjudicate. But it becomes complicated because of clashes between human values. There are those who have strong compulsions to subdue or tame nature's wildness and to exploit it, rationalizing that such a view benefits human economic health and well-being; there are others who revere its wildness for its pristine majesty and mystery, unspoiled by human presence. In either case, humankind typically does not view itself as being an intimate part of nature. Indeed, it has been difficult to imagine how humans could play a shared role in its inner workings alongside the other species that make up the natural world. To some, it would be uncivilized to do so. Wild animals and plants inhabit nature and so becoming a part of it would mean reverting to a seemingly primitive way of life. To others, it would be like intruding into a pristine and mystical place.

Either way, we have effectively created a human/nature divide. We are altering and controlling many natural areas expressly to suit our own purposes. In the interest of economics and commerce, we have transformed landscapes and ecosystems to enhance food supply, to extract ores and metals, to produce energy and building materials, and to reduce the danger from natural enemies like wild predators and disease. In the interest of conservation, we set aside some natural spaces as managed preserves and protected areas. But many of these spaces are mere fragments of their once vast size. Increasingly, there is less and less geography left on Earth that will not be influenced by one or another form of human agency. This can be reason for celebration or lament, depending on one's view of nature. Nonetheless, history has taught us time and again that humans will continue to exercise their impulse to transform and control nature. This was true thousands of years ago when societies transitioned to agrarian lifestyles, whereby they transformed wilderness into cropland and built infrastructure to irrigate those crops. It was true hundreds of years ago during the industrial revolution when societies expanded global trade and commerce, whereby they exploited wilderness to supply raw materials such as coal, iron ore and timber. It remains true today with the rise in urban growth and technological advancement.

So going forward, the looming question is: How can humanity engage with nature more thoughtfully and sustainably? From an ecological standpoint, sustainability means that ecosystems have the enduring capacity to be productive. This means ensuring that nutrients and water are replenished — recycled — at rates the meet the physiological needs of plants and animals to enable them to remain productive. It further means ensuring that species within ecosystems — the mind-boggling variety of microbes and plants and animals — can exist and fulfill their functional roles as interdependent members of food chains. Of course, any decision about how to do this must reconcile conflicting human values about nature. But the fate of these countless species and their interrelationships will inevitably hang in the balance. While...