Über die Autorin bzw. den Autor

Mark Juergensmeyer is professor of sociology and global studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His many books include "Terror in the Mind of God". Margo Kitts is associate professor of humanities at Hawai'i Pacific University. She is the author of "Sanctified Violence in Homeric Society".

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"An outstanding contribution to the literature on religion and violence. This anthology of twenty-five writings about religious violence, from classical religious texts, contemporary religious activists, and scholarly interpretations of religious violence in its symbolic forms, is sure to become the foundational source book for this emerging field of study."--Donald K. Swearer, Swarthmore College and Harvard Divinity School

"This brilliantly compiled compendium explores the complex relationship between religion and violence. The readings, which span two millennia, force us to confront a painful truth--those who aim to kill in the name of God will find legitimacy in carefully selected sacred texts. Highly recommended for anyone hoping to understand humanity's persistent attraction to holy war and sacrifice."--Jessica Stern, Harvard University

"Violence and terror in the name of God are as old as religion itself. Princeton Readings in Religion and Violence is a timely and important collection that will be welcomed by experts and students alike. Its combination of religious texts with writings of theologians, philosophers, social scientists, and religious extremists, offers a unique approach to understanding the origins, nature, history, and justification of violence in religions' holy and unholy wars."--John L. Esposito, Georgetown University

"This book introduces readers to primary sources regarding various justifications of violence by diverse religions and to interpreters who address the integral relationship between the two. The authors provide helpful introductions to each selection, together with thoughtful syntheses in the introductory and concluding essays of the book."--June O'Connor, University of California, Riverside

"The topic of religion and violence has become a prominent concern in religious studies, and, by linking sacrifice, religion, and violence, this book makes a valuable contribution to the field. The book's handy format will make it a useful resource for general readers, scholars, and students."--Bruce Chilton, author of Abraham's Curse: The Roots of Violence in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

"This is a fascinating and instructive collection of carefully chosen excerpts from sacred texts and chronicles, first-person essays, chapters, and other primary source documents, as well as classic sociological, psychological, and theoretical treatises--each addressing the link between religion and violence. The collection examines a topic that is rich in significance for theorists as well as readers of the daily headlines, and is a terrific sourcebook for students and teachers."--Scott Appleby, University of Notre Dame

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Princeton Readings in Religion and Violence

Princeton University Press

Contents

Acknowledgments...................................................................ixIntroduction: Why Is Religion Violent and Violence Religious?.....................1Introduction to Part I............................................................71. Kautilya.......................................................................132. Sun Tzu........................................................................173. The Bhagavad Gita..............................................................204. Soho Takuan....................................................................255. The Hebrew Bible...............................................................296. The Qur'an.....................................................................357. Thomas Aquinas.................................................................418. Reinhold Niebuhr...............................................................459. Michael Bray...................................................................5510. Abd Al-Salam Faraj............................................................6211. Meir Kahane...................................................................6912. Shoko Asahara.................................................................7513. 9/11 Conspirator..............................................................82Introduction to Part II...........................................................9314. Émile Durkheim...........................................................10015. Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss.................................................10816. Sigmund Freud.................................................................11517. René Girard..............................................................12718. Walter Burkert................................................................14119. Maurice Bloch.................................................................15220. Georges Bataille..............................................................16721. Karl Marx.....................................................................17422. Nancy Jay.....................................................................17823. Elaine Scarry.................................................................19024. Jean Baudrillard..............................................................20125. Ashis Nandy...................................................................210War and Sacrifice.................................................................217Selected Bibliography.............................................................223Permissions.......................................................................229About the Editors.................................................................231Index.............................................................................233

Chapter One

ANCIENT HINDU JUSTIFICATIONS for undertaking violence in warfare are found in the classic fourth-century B.C.E. text, the Arthashastra. The very name of the volume indicates its religious purpose: it is knowledge (shastra) about political and economic issues—artha—that are one of the four essential aspects of the Hindu way of life. Similarly, the Dharmashastra shows the proper way to undertake one's dharma—one's social obligations. These texts show that fulfilling one's political, economic, and social responsibilities are religious duties, and persons who are in positions of responsibility are expected to live out each of these aspects of life in a skillful and appropriate way.

Responsibility for political life is ultimately in the hands of the rulers, and thus the Arthashastra is largely aimed at how a king should rule, especially when confronted with enemies of the state. The authorship of the multiple-volume work is attributed to a court adviser, Kautilya, and the object of the Arthashastra is to give guidance to the king in formulating political and economic policies for the sake of a larger moral and spiritual cause.

The Arthashastra does not encourage kings to wage warfare indiscriminately. In fact, it says nothing about the decision to go to war in the first place. It assumes that this critical moral determination is part of the responsibilities given to a king as an upholder of rajdharma—the righteousness of public life. The traditional symbol of the moral responsibility of rulers was the "white umbrella"—the shield of social order that the king was supposed to maintain so that the citizens of a kingdom could fulfill their own dharma—their own moral and social obligations.

In this excerpt, the Arthashastra provides advice to a ruler who is at war. A fight may be "open"—waged on a battlefield—or "treacherous." The latter is one conducted in the manner of guerrilla warfare. The text recommends that verses from the classic Hindu text, the Vedas, be recited and rituals performed by priests in order to give blessings to the soldiers as they enter into battle.

"FORMS OF TREACHEROUS FIGHTS," THE ARTHASHASTRA

He who is possessed of a strong army, who has succeeded in his intrigues, and who has applied remedies against dangers may undertake an open fight, if he has secured a position favorable to himself; otherwise a treacherous fight.

He should strike the enemy when the latter's army is under trouble or is furiously attacked; or he who has secured a favorable position may strike the enemy entangled in an unfavorable position. Or he who possesses control over the elements of his own state may, through the aid of the enemy's traitors, enemies and inimical wild tribes, make a false impression of his own defeat on the mind of the enemy who is entrenched in a favorable position, and having thus dragged the enemy into an unfavorable position, he may strike the latter. When the enemy's army is in a compact body, he should break it by means of his elephants; when the enemy has come down from its favorable position, following the false impression of the invader's defeat, the invader may turn back and strike the enemy's army, broken or unbroken. Having struck the front of the enemy's army, he may strike it again by means of his elephants and horses when it has shown its back and is running away. When frontal attack is unfavorable, he should strike it from behind; when attack on the rear is unfavorable, he should strike it in front; when attack on one side is unfavorable, he should strike it on the other.

Or having caused the enemy to fight, with his own army of traitors, enemies and wild tribes, the invader should with his fresh army strike the enemy when tired. Or having through the aid of traitors given to the enemy the impression of defeat, the invader with full confidence in his own strength may allure and strike the over-confident enemy. Or the invader, if he is vigilant, may strike the careless enemy when the latter is deluded with the thought that the invader's merchants, camp and carriers have been destroyed. Or having made his strong force look like a weak force, he may strike the enemy's brave men when falling against him. Or having captured the enemy's cattle or having destroyed the enemy's dogs, he may induce the enemy's brave men to come out and may slay them. Or having made the enemy's men sleepless by harassing them at night, he may strike them during the day, when they are weary from want of sleep and are parched by heat, himself being under the shade. Or with his army of elephants enshrouded with cotton and leather dress, he may offer a night-battle to his enemy. Or he may strike the enemy's men during the afternoon when they are tired by making preparations during the forenoon; or he may strike the whole of the enemy's army when it is facing the sun.

A desert, a dangerous spot, marshy places, mountains, valleys, uneven boats, cows, cart-like array of the army, mist, and night are temptations alluring the enemy against the invader.

The beginning of an attack is the time for treacherous fights.

As to an open or fair fight, a virtuous king should call his army together, and, specifying the place and time of battle, address them thus: "I am a paid servant like yourselves; this country is to be enjoyed (by me) together with you; you have to strike the enemy specified by me."

His minister and priest should encourage the army by saying thus:

"It is declared in the Vedas that the goal which is reached by sacrificers after performing the final ablutions in sacrifices in which the priests have been duly paid for is the very goal which brave men are destined to attain." About this there are the two verses:

"Beyond those places which Bráhmans, desirous of getting into heaven, attain together with their sacrificial instruments by performing a number of sacrifices, or by practicing penance are the places which brave men, losing life in good battles, are destined to attain immediately."

"Let not a new vessel filled with water, consecrated and covered over with grass be the acquisition of that man who does not fight in return for the subsistence received by him from his master, and who is therefore destined to go to hell."

Astrologers and other followers of the king should infuse spirit into his army by pointing out the impregnable nature of the array of his army, his power to associate with gods, and his omniscience; and they should at the same time frighten the enemy. The day before the battle, the king should fast and lie down on his chariot with weapons. He should also make oblations into the fire pronouncing the mantras of the Atharvaveda, and cause prayers to be offered for the good of the victors as well as of those who attain to heaven by dying in the battle-field. He should also submit his person to Bráhmans; he should make the central portion of his army consist of such men as are noted for their bravery, skill, high birth, and loyalty and as are not displeased with the rewards and honors bestowed on them. The place that is to be occupied by the king is that portion of the army which is composed of his father, sons, brothers, and other men, skilled in using weapons, and having no flags and headdress. He should mount an elephant or a chariot, if the army consists mostly of horses; or he may mount that kind of animal, of which the army is mostly composed or which is the most skillfully trained. One who is disguised like the king should attend to the work of arraying the army.

Soothsayers and court bards should describe heaven as the goal for the brave and hell for the timid; and also extol the caste, corporation, family, deeds, and character of his men. The followers of the priest should proclaim the auspicious aspects of the witchcraft performed. Spies, carpenters and astrologers should also declare the success of their own operations and the failure of those of the enemy.

After having pleased the army with rewards and honors, the commander-in-chief should address it and say:

"A hundred thousand for slaying the king (the enemy); fifty thousand for slaying the commander-in-chief, and the heir-apparent; ten thousand for slaying the chief of the brave; five thousand for destroying an elephant, or a chariot; a thousand for killing a horse; a hundred for slaying the chief of the infantry; twenty for bringing a head; and twice the pay in addition to whatever is seized." This information should be made known to the leaders of every group of ten men.

Physicians with surgical instruments, machines, remedial oils, and cloth in their hands; and women with prepared food and beverage should stand behind, uttering encouraging words to fighting men.

The army should be arrayed on a favorable position, facing other than the south quarter, with its back turned to the sun, and capable to rush as it stands. If the array is made on an unfavorable spot, horses should be run. If the army arrayed on an unfavorable position is confined or is made to run away from it (by the enemy), it will be subjugated either as standing or running away; otherwise it will conquer the enemy when standing or running away. The even, uneven, and complex nature of the ground in the front or on the sides or in the rear should be examined. On an even site, staff-like or circular array should be made; and on an uneven ground, arrays of compact movement or of detached bodies should be made. Having broken the whole army of the enemy, the invader should seek for peace. If the armies are of equal strength, he should make peace when requested for it; and if the enemy's army is inferior, he should attempt to destroy it, but not that which has secured a favorable position and is reckless of life.

When a broken army, reckless of life, resumes its attack, its fury becomes irresistible; hence he should not harass a broken army of the enemy.

Chapter Two

SAID TO BE THE OLDEST military treatise in the world, The Art of War provides a spiritually balanced way of approaching warfare. It was written in the fifth century B.C.E. in ancient China by Sun Tzu, "Master Sun"— which is most likely an honorific name given to a general, Sun Wu. The Art of War is a practical manual for fighting that has been applied to martial arts as well as to warfare between states. Like the ancient Indian text, the Arthashastra, The Art of War implies that kings in ancient China conduct warfare only if they have a justifiable reason for doing so. Moreover, the manual insists that the conduct of war be consistent with the balanced state of harmony that is advocated in Chinese religious texts.

In this excerpt, Sun Tzu provides the conditions that determine whether a potential fighter is prepared for battle. The five constant factors that determine the outcome of warfare include "the moral law," a state of harmony that unites followers and their rulers and makes certain that warfare is conducted with the consent of the governed. Though, as Sun Tzu states, "all warfare is based on deception," it is also clear that the aim of battle is to restore a state of order and calm, and elsewhere in The Art of War Sun Tzu observes that the most favorable outcome is when the context is shifted and the conflict diverted so that no bloodshed is required at all.

"LAYING PLANS," THE ART OF WAR

1. Sun Tzu said: The art of war is of vital importance to the State.

2. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected.

3. The art of war, then, is governed by five constant factors, to be taken into account in one's deliberations when seeking to determine the conditions obtaining in the field.

4. These are: (1) The Moral Law; (2) Heaven; (3) Earth; (4) The Commander; (5) Method and Discipline.

5, 6. The Moral Law causes the people to be in complete accord with their ruler, so that they will follow him regardless of their lives, undismayed by any danger.

7. Heaven signifies night and day, cold and heat, times and seasons.

8. Earth comprises distances, great and small; danger and security; open ground and narrow passes; the chances of life and death.

9. The Commander stands for the virtues of wisdom, sincerity, benevolence, courage and strictness.

10. By Method and Discipline are to be understood the marshaling of the army in its proper subdivisions, the graduations of rank among the officers, the maintenance of roads by which supplies may reach the army, and the control of military expenditure.

11. These five heads should be familiar to every general: he who knows them will be victorious; he who knows them not will fail.

12. Therefore, in your deliberations, when seeking to determine the military conditions, let them be made the basis of a comparison, in this wise:

13.

(1) Which of the two sovereigns is imbued with the Moral Law?

(2) Which of the two generals has most ability?

(3) With whom lie the advantages derived from Heaven and Earth?

(4) On which side is discipline most rigorously enforced?

(5) Which army is stronger?

(6) On which side are officers and men more highly trained?

(7) In which army is there the greater constancy both in reward and punishment?

14. By means of these seven considerations I can forecast victory or defeat.

15. The general that hearkens to my counsel and acts upon it will conquer: let such a one be retained in command! The general that hearkens not to my counsel nor acts upon it, will suffer defeat: let such a one be dismissed!

16. While heading the profit of my counsel, avail yourself also of any helpful circumstances over and beyond the ordinary rules.

17. According as circumstances are favorable, one should modify one's plans.

18. All warfare is based on deception.

19. Hence, when able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must seem inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near.

20. Hold out baits to entice the enemy. Feign disorder, and crush him.

21. If he is secure at all points, be prepared for him. If he is in superior strength, evade him.

22. If your opponent is of choleric temper, seek to irritate him. Pretend to be weak, that he may grow arrogant.

23. If he is taking his ease, give him no rest. If his forces are united, separate them.

24. Attack him where he is unprepared, appear where you are not expected.

25. These military devices, leading to victory, must not be divulged beforehand.

26. Now the general who wins a battle makes many calculations in his temple ere the battle is fought.

The general who loses a battle makes but few calculations beforehand. Thus do many calculations lead to victory, and few calculations to defeat: how much more no calculation at all! It is by attention to this point that I can foresee who is likely to win or lose.

Chapter Three

ONE OF THE HINDU TRADITION'S most beloved texts, the Bhagavad Gita, is a sermon delivered in the context of war. It is part of the great epic, the Mahabharata, that comprises a shelf of books that were written down several centuries before the time of Christ. At the heart of the epic is a great battle on the field of Kurukshetra in North India between two sets of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. As one of the princes, Arjuna, prepares to command his chariot into battle, he reflects out loud about the meaninglessness of warfare. Either he will kill or be killed, he despairs, and either way it will involve taking a life or being destroyed by one of his own cousins.

As luck would have it, his chariot driver overhears Arjuna's lament, and he is no ordinary soldier. The driver is Lord Krishna. The Hindu god turns to Arjuna and patiently explains to him the necessity for entering into battle, which turns out to be an explanation for discovering meaning in life itself. The sermon is known as the Bhagavad Gita—the song (gita) of the auspicious one (bhagavad).

The passages that follow begin with Arjuna's dilemma about being forced into a conflict where he will either kill or be killed. Everything that follows is part of Lord Krishna's response. He begins by berating Arjuna not only for his cowardice but also for taking the physical body too seriously. Beneath this physical world is a more eternal one, and a more true self, a soul that cannot slay or be slain. Lord Krishna also talks about the reason why people should strive in the world—not for accomplishment but for duty and the virtue of struggle itself.

(Continues...)

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