Über die Autorin bzw. den Autor

Michael D. Cole is the author of The Analysis of Controlled Substances, published by Wiley.

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This series of books provides coverage of all of the major analytical techniques and their application in the most important areas of physical, life and materials science. Each text is presented in an open learning/distance learning style, in which the learning objectives are clearly identified. The reader's understanding of the material is constantly evaluated by the use of self-assessment and discussion questions. Series Editor: David J. Ando

It is now recognized that, in order to ensure the validity of a forensic science analysis, a number of criteria need to be met. These include the following:
* The sample under investigation is suitable for the analysis being carried out.

* The analytical procedure adopted will answer the particular question(s) being asked, for example, with respect to identification, quantification and profiling (comparison of samples).

* The data obtained are both correctly recorded and interpreted.

* The findings are accurately reported.
The aim of this text is to provide an understanding into the analysis of drugs of abuse within the context of their control, an appreciation of the different techniques that can be employed for drug analysis and the reasons for their use.

In this book, the major classes of drugs of abuse are addressed, the analysis of which follows a systematic framework, including description, presumptive testing, thin layer chromatography, instrumental methods and data analysis. Throughout the text, regular questions and answers are used to further develop an understanding of the processes being employed.

This book will appeal to both undergraduate and postgraduate students of forensic science, as well as those practitioners who are new in post or receiving additional or refresher training. It should also be of benefit to those who are studying controlled substances as broadening courses in other scientific disciplines.

Aus dem Klappentext

This series of books provides coverage of all of the major analytical techniques and their application in the most important areas of physical, life and materials science. Each text is presented in an open learning/distance learning style, in which the learning objectives are clearly identified. The reader's understanding of the material is constantly evaluated by the use of self-assessment and discussion questions. Series Editor: David J. Ando

It is now recognized that, in order to ensure the validity of a forensic science analysis, a number of criteria need to be met. These include the following:
* The sample under investigation is suitable for the analysis being carried out.

* The analytical procedure adopted will answer the particular question(s) being asked, for example, with respect to identification, quantification and profiling (comparison of samples).

* The data obtained are both correctly recorded and interpreted.

* The findings are accurately reported.
The aim of this text is to provide an understanding into the analysis of drugs of abuse within the context of their control, an appreciation of the different techniques that can be employed for drug analysis and the reasons for their use.

In this book, the major classes of drugs of abuse are addressed, the analysis of which follows a systematic framework, including description, presumptive testing, thin layer chromatography, instrumental methods and data analysis. Throughout the text, regular questions and answers are used to further develop an understanding of the processes being employed.

This book will appeal to both undergraduate and postgraduate students of forensic science, as well as those practitioners who are new in post or receiving additional or refresher training. It should also be of benefit to those who are studying controlled substances as broadening courses in other scientific disciplines.

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The Analysis of Controlled Substances

John Wiley & Sons

Chapter One

Learning Objectives

To appreciate the problem of increasing drug use.

To be aware of the international legislation relating to drugs.

To be aware of the legislation in relation to the control of drugs in the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia.

To appreciate the role of the drugs chemist in drugs analysis.

To understand the need for quality assurance in the drugs laboratory.

To gain an understanding of the ways to facilitate evidence presentation in court.

1.1 Introductory Remarks

The problems associated with psychotropic drugs and controlled substances have been, and continue to be, the subject of much debate. Regardless of one's views, however, there remains the fact that a number of drugs are controlled substances. There is now a considerable body of evidence that the number of people using controlled substances for non-medical purposes is increasing. Data from the United Kingdom (Figure 1.1) is mirrored by that collected from the international community.

Within the legal and forensic science context, in order to prove that an offence has been committed, it is necessary to prove that a drug is present, and, if required, to determine the amount of the drug and its relationship to other samples. It is essential for those working in this area to understand how such analyses are carried out. In order to select, and critically evaluate, such analyses, it is also necessary to have an overview of the corresponding legislation in the jurisdiction in which one is working.

1.2 International Legislation

Within the international context, controls on drugs are set out in three treaties issued by the United Nations, namely:

1. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961.

2. The Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971.

3. The Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988.

Signatories to these treaties implement control through domestic laws. In the United Kingdom, the principle legislative document for drug control is the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971. This has been the subject of 14 modification orders and is accompanied by the Misuse of Drugs Act (Regulations), 1985, which was superceded by the Misuse of Drugs Act (Regulations), 2001.

Within the United States, the situation is further complicated because drugs are scheduled at the Federal level, but there may also be legislation at the State and County levels.

1.3 Controlled Substances in the United Kingdom

1.3.1 Background to the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971

In the UK today, the legislative documents that are used to control drugs of abuse are the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971, its amendments and modification orders, and the Misuse of Drugs Act (Regulations), 2001, which supersedes the Misuse of Drugs Act (Regulations), 1985. In essence, the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 defines what may not be done with respect to these compounds, while the Misuse of Drugs Act (Regulations), 2001 defines what may be done under the appropriately controlled circumstances. Similarly, customs offences, such as 'knowingly evading prohibition on unauthorized import/export of controlled substances', are regulated by the Customs and Excise Management Act, 1979.

Historically, in the United Kingdom the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1951 simply controlled vegetable narcotics, such as Cannabis sativa (cannabis) and opium, and a few chemically related synthetic substances. This was superseded by the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1964, which organized the controlled drugs into three schedules based on internationally accepted principles. This was the first time that stimulants, used as anorectics, such as amphetamine and its analogues, were included in British Law. It also introduced some specific offences in relation to cannabis. In 1965, a new act, i.e. the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1965, combined the provisions of the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1951 with those of the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1964, as well as providing a more comprehensive definition of herbal cannabis as 'the fruiting and flowering tops of any plant of the genus Cannabis'. Since the forensic scientist still came across difficulties in discriminating fragmented plant parts which could still be a potent source of the active constituents of the plant, herbal cannabis was therefore redefined in the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 as: 'all the aerial parts, except the lignified stem and the non-viable seed, of any plant of the genus Cannabis'.

Another problem to be corrected by the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 was that of the analogues of amphetamines, which were defined as: 'structurally derived by substitution in the side-chain or by ring closure therein' in the Act of 1965. Several compounds, such as ephedrine, were specifically excepted, but over 90 others were not purposely included. This was corrected by naming the specific compounds. Care was taken to re-phrase the wording so that certain chemical compounds, having the potential to become drugs of abuse, which might not yet have been available, generally referred to as 'designer drugs', would still be included. References were made, for example, to 'ether and ester derivatives' and to the 'stereoisomers' of several compounds.

1.3.2 The Provisions of the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971

The Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 lists controlled substances in three classes in Schedule 2 to the Act. Class A drugs have the greatest propensity to cause social harm, and Class C drugs the least. Class A drugs include cocaine, heroin, mescaline, morphine and opium, Class B includes amphetamine(s), and Class C the benzodiazepines. At the time of writing, Cannabis is being reclassified. In addition, stereoisomers, salts, esters, ethers and certain preparations are also controlled groupwise, thus removing the need to name each of these individually. Associated with each class of drug are maximum penalties which may be prescribed. Those for Class A drug offences are more severe than those for Class C offences. For Class A drugs, some offences carry a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, for Class B 14 years in prison, and for Class C, five years in prison. With respect to each of the listed drugs, the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 is divided into several sections (Table 1.1), with each section relating to a specific type of offence under the Act which is prohibited.

In addition, the Government may create exceptions to the general rules and allow certain substances to be imported and exported, allow persons to use certain drugs under licence, allow medical and veterinary practitioners to supply certain drugs, and allow certain persons to manufacture, possess and work with drugs for educational or scientific research purposes. The mechanism by which much of this is achieved is detailed in the Misuse of Drugs (Regulations), 2001, which details what may be done and how, while the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 details what may not be done.

In this legal area, it is necessary to be able to provide scientific support for any charge brought against individuals to prove that an offence has been committed. The majority of offences relate to possession of controlled substances. However, it is sometimes necessary for the analyst to determine the amount as well as the presence of a drug...