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Frances Harris is the editor of Global Environmental Issues, 2nd Edition, published by Wiley.

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Global Environmental Issues, Second Edition builds on the popularity of the first edition, viewing global environmental problems as complex issues with a network of causes, influenced by a range of actors with differing priorities. The book recognises that science underpins much of what happens in society and therefore it is important to be able to interpret the environmental and social consequences of scientific developments. In addition to discussing the main biophysical causes, the book illustrates how socio-economic and political factors determine why and how people use land, resources and technology, and how this in turn affects natural resource management.

This edition includes new chapters on the politics of science, International environmental regulation and treaties, environmental issues in a globalised world and natural resource management.

Global Environmental Issues, Second Edition is essential reading for upper level undergraduates and Masters students within departments of Environmental Science and Geography.

• Includes case studies from around the world to provide a real life context for the issues tackled in each chapter
• Considers both the results of human actions and natural environmental change in order to provide balanced, in-depth debate
• Includes coverage of contemporary 'hot topics' such as biodiversity, globalization and sustainable development
• Chapters authored by experts in the field
• Includes new chapters on The politics of science, International environmental regulation and treaties , Environmental issues in a globalised world and Natural Resource Management
• Expanded sections include negotiating multilateral environmental agreements, GM crops, biofuels and marine and freshwater resources

Aus dem Klappentext

Global Environmental Issues, Second Edition builds on the popularity of the first edition, viewing global environmental problems as complex issues with a network of causes, influenced by a range of actors with differing priorities. The book recognises that science underpins much of what happens in society and therefore it is important to be able to interpret the environmental and social consequences of scientific developments. In addition to discussing the main biophysical causes, the book illustrates how socio-economic and political factors determine why and how people use land, resources and technology, and how this in turn affects natural resource management.

This edition includes new chapters on the politics of science, International environmental regulation and treaties, environmental issues in a globalised world and natural resource management.

Global Environmental Issues, Second Edition is essential reading for upper level undergraduates and Masters students within departments of Environmental Science and Geography.

• Includes case studies from around the world to provide a real life context for the issues tackled in each chapter
• Considers both the results of human actions and natural environmental change in order to provide balanced, in-depth debate
• Includes coverage of contemporary 'hot topics' such as biodiversity, globalization and sustainable development
• Chapters authored by experts in the field
• Includes new chapters on The politics of science, International environmental regulation and treaties , Environmental issues in a globalised world and Natural Resource Management
• Expanded sections include negotiating multilateral environmental agreements, GM crops, biofuels and marine and freshwater resources

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Global Environmental Issues

John Wiley & Sons

Chapter One

1.1 Introduction

Environmental issues have been a concern for many years. Yet somehow they are problems that we have not been able to resolve, despite research, media attention, increased public awareness about environmental problems, campaigns by environmental pressure groups, and international agreements. Our environment is dynamic, constantly changing and evolving in response to stimuli. Yet in the last century it became apparent that mankind is having an increasing effect on the planet's ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles, so much so that our activities are now causing environmental change which is overriding the natural dynamism of the earth. Yet despite the evidence of environmental problems such as biodiversity loss, land cover change observable from satellite imagery, records of climate change and many examples of pollution, we still pursue activities which perpetuate the problems. As the world's population increases, and the per capita consumption of natural resources increases, we will have an even greater effect on these environmental problems, exacerbating them further.

Why are such problems so hard to resolve? There are three broad reasons: first, the science of environmental problems is complex. We are dealing with many interrelated dynamic systems, within which and between which feedback mechanisms occur. Second, there are many stakeholders involved in both the causes and the solutions to environmental problems. Organising all of these stakeholders to act in a co-ordinated manner is difficult. Third, resolving global environmental issues will require changes in our own consumption and pollution of natural resources, which will mean changes to lifestyles. This will require commitment at the personal level, which not everyone is willing to make.

Human–environment interactions involve not only the question of resource use per person, but also our ability to understand the science of the environment, our ability to regulate our impact on the environment, our beliefs in the value of the environment, our attitudes to the future, particularly risk, and our ability to negotiate solutions both at the local and the global level. This book aims to discuss environmental issues from a scientific and socio-economic viewpoint, so that they are understood not only as contested science concerning natural resources, but also as political and social issues. In this way, the reader gains a fuller understanding of the complexity of environmental issues and the challenges we are faced with in order to resolve them. 'The science of the environment is socially and politically situated, rather than unambiguous or separable from the subjective location of human perception' (Stott and Sullivan, 2000, p. 2).

1.2 Global demands on natural resources

Throughout the world, people earn their livelihoods through the use of whatever resources are available to them. Our livelihoods are ultimately natural resource dependent. Natural resources provide us with the land and water for agriculture (whether for subsistence needs or to serve a wider market), trees for firewood and timber, ocean and freshwater resources for fisheries, wildlife for meat, animal products, tourism, oil, gas and coal for energy, and also mineral resources (rocks, minerals, gems, coal ...). Many economies are dependent on natural resources. At the household and community level, this can be in the form of agriculture or natural resource products gathered and sold (e.g. wild foods, honey). At the national level, most countries rely on their natural resource base to meet basic needs and provide the resources for economic development, for example, through cash crops, forestry or mining. Globally we rely on natural resources for ecosystem regulation. Even where people do not rely on natural resources for their day-to-day livelihood-generating activities, the role of natural resources and ecosystem services in maintaining the environment is still crucial. The role of ecosystem services has been recognised in recent years (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005), raising the importance of the conservation of biodiversity. There is no substitute for the global climate regulation mechanism. Neither can the effects of land cover change be reversed to recreate the natural environment which existed prior to land degradation and urban sprawl. Although we can save some seeds of plants, and keep some animals in zoos, recreating ecosystems is a much greater challenge.

In 1798, Malthus predicted that human population growth would be checked by food supply. Although Malthus' prediction concerned specifically food, wider concerns that the human population's needs will outstrip the planet's resources have been of ongoing concern. Ehrlich (1968) argued that population growth rates at that time would exceed the world's resources. Furthermore, as most population growth, and also declining food production, were found to occur in developing countries, he advocated population control. However, these arguments assumed a steady 'carrying capacity' of the earth, whereas in reality, technological developments alter the ability of land to produce food, and rising standards of living alter the demands for food. Boserup (1965) argued increasing populations can be the driving force for agricultural intensification, which increases food output per unit area of land. For example, the Green Revolution had an enormous impact on agricultural productivity, particularly that of rice and wheat. (Subsequently it was realised that the Green Revolution also created new social and environmental problems, as discussed in section 7.4.1, but its effect on the populationfood debate remained.) Simon (1981) also argued that more people bring positive change, as this results in more ideas, more experimentation, and more technological innovation which can help resolve the problems of resource limitations. In contrast, Dyson (1996) maintains that food production increased and outstripped population growth in the last decades of the twentieth century and Bennett (2000) points out, 'There seems to be no evidence that our ability to produce food has been a lasting brake on population growth.' Michaelson (1981, p. 3) stated that 'Overpopulation is not a matter of too many people, but of unequal distribution of resources. The fundamental issue is not population control, but control of resources and the very circumstances of life itself.' Globally, sufficient food is produced to feed people. However, food shortages occur because of variations in land productivity, and also because of problems in food distribution, due to poverty, conflict and failing markets (Bennett, 2000). Problems of inequality and existing power struggles affect people's access to resources and people's entitlements to food and other natural resources (Sen, 1982; Leach et al., 1997) on which their livelihoods depend.

The global population is currently estimated to be near 7 billion, and there is wide consensus that it will reach 9 billion by 2050 (Lutz and Samir, 2010). It is anticipated that the global population will reach a plateau within this century. However, anticipating food requirements of this population is a complex process, do to changing cultures, settlement patterns, and diets. Furthermore, these social changes need to be assessed in the light of changing environmental...