Über die Autorin bzw. den Autor

Pat Manley is a technical contributor to Practical Boat Owner magazine. He is an Fellow of the Royal Institute of Navigation and an RYA ‘Yachtmaster’ Instructor. Pat is also the author of Electrics Companion, Radar Companion, Simple Boat Maintenance and The Diesel Companion, Diesels Afloat and Essential Boat Electrics.

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The modern sailor is an electronic navigator. New boats come stacked with GPS, chartplotters and radar, on a bewildering array of screens and displays. Practical Navigation for the Modern Boat Owner teaches you how to navigate using these devices.

Practical Navigation for the Modern Boat Owner leads you through all the aspects of navigation of your boat in a logical order. It uses a unique combination of modern and traditional disciplines to boat navigation. This practical approach ensures that although modern electronic methods remain at the forefront, readers will never lack in knowledge to navigate their boat safely in any circumstance.

Topics include:

• GPS – satellites, receivers and position
• Shape of the Earth – distance and direction
• Finding your Position – where am I now?
• Passage Planning – choice of routes hazards and harbors of refuge
• Radar
• Personal Computers – AIS on a PC and computers for navigation

A website featuring simulators accompanies Practical Navigation for the Modern Boat Owner adding a further dimension to an all-inclusive book: sailors can test their skills whilst they are learning.

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Practical Navigation for the Modern Boat Owner

John Wiley & Sons

Chapter One

Errors in COG and SOG

The original global positioning system (GPS) consists of 24 satellites orbiting the Earth at a distance of around 11000 miles. Each orbits once every 12 hours in six orbital plains, so there will be between five and eight satellites in view at any time, from any point on the Earth's surface. The drawing here shows only three orbital plains for clarity.

There are a number of spare satellites in orbit in case of failure and each satellite has a life expectancy of about 7 years. New satellites are launched by the US military as required.

Fears about the American monopoly of accurate position fixing amongst non-USA countries have lead to the establishment of GLONASS (a Russian system) and the pending establishment of GALLILEO (a European system). They work in a similar manner and new versions of GPS receiver may be able to operate with any system.

How Your GPS Receiver Tells You Which Satellites It Can See

On startup, a GPS receiver starts looking for satellites and will display a page showing you its sky view all around the horizon. The outer ring is the horizon, the inner ring is at an elevation of 45 degrees and the centre represents the position in the sky vertically overhead (the zenith). The predicted positions of satellites are shown as empty circles which become coloured when a satisfactory satellite signal is received. The serial number of the satellite is shown in the circle. Alongside the diagrams are vertical bars representing the signal strength (in fact the signal-to-noise ratio or quality of the signal) and again each bar is numbered. In this way, you can see the number of satellites and the quality of the signals being received in order to form an idea of how good a fix you are likely to get. There's often a number giving an indication of the fix accuracy, more of which later.

How GPS Works

Timing

In order to find its position on the Earth's surface, a GPS receiver needs to find its distances from at least four satellites. Theoretically, it needs only three, but the clock on the receiver is not accurate enough to allow this.

Distance is measured by measuring the time taken for the GPS signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. As the time taken is only 0.06 second for a satellite immediately overhead, an error of one thousandth of a second would give an error of 200 miles! Each satellite has an onboard 'Atomic Clock', which is super accurate, but for each receiver to be similarly equipped, GPS would not be a practical proposition.

Satellites transmit a semi-random signal, which the receiver matches with its own semi-random signal. The distance the receiver has to move its own signal to get a match is a measure of the time difference and a range can then be calculated. It's a bit like matching continually repeated barcodes in reality. This is accurate enough to get a first guess at the distance.

Fixing Position with GPS

If the distance to the satellite is calculated by the receiver, it can be plotted as a position line, where any place on the Earth's surface is the same distance from the satellite. The receiver must lie somewhere on that position line.

If the distances from two more satellites are calculated and plotted, the receiver must lie on all three lines. Normally, this can occur at only one point on the Earth's surface and so that must indicate the position of the receiver.

Because of small inaccuracies in the receiver's clock, there will be an error in its position. The position lines will not intersect at the same point and will form what is known as a cocked hat.

Pseudo Range

A clever trick within the receiver converts the ranges into pseudo ranges, which allows them to be shuffled around within certain limits.

The range from a fourth or even more satellites is calculated and added to the fix.

The extra position line(s) allows the timing error to be determined and this results in a good fix, where all the position lines intersect at only one point.

Accuracy of the Fix

With range being calculated using the time taken for the signal to travel between the satellite and the receiver, any variation in the speed of the signal and the actual path followed will lead to errors. Errors due to these effects will normally amount to no more than 15 metres for 95% of the time, being made up from the following:

ionospheric effects, 10 metres;

ephemeris errors, 2.5 metres;

satellite clock errors, 2 metres;

multipath distortion, 1 metre;

tropospheric effects, 0.5 metre;

numerical errors, 1 metre or less.

With my boat moored in the marina, normal GPS errors were plotted as shown over an 8 hour period. Although most were contained within the 25 metre diameter circle, one was almost 100 metres in error. This is perfectly normal GPS performance.

GPS Blackout

Solar flares can cause a complete GPS signal blackout on the sunlit side of the Earth's surface. In 2006 flares on the 5th and 6th of December caused profound and severe effects to GPS receivers causing a large number of them to stop tracking satellites. Professor Dale Gary of the New Jersey Institute of Technology said 'This solar radio burst occurred during a solar minimum, yet produced as much as 10 times more radio noise than the previous record ... at its peak, the burst produced 20000 times more radio emission than the entire rest of the Sun. This was enough to swamp GPS receivers over the entire sunlit side of the Earth'.

The Solar flare cycle covers a period of 11 years.

Deliberate Interference

The strength of the radio signals carrying the GPS data is very low and can easily be interfered with. Enemies can deliberately try to disrupt signals in a relatively small local area and military agencies regularly deliberately interfere with the signals to judge the results. These tests are promulgated in advance.

GPS Is Line of Sight

A GPS receiver must be able to 'see' a satellite in order to receive its signal. If buildings, cliffs or trees obstruct that line of site, the signal from that satellite will not be received and the accuracy of the fix may be degraded. It's possible that the signal may be received as it bounces off another surface so it will take longer time to arrive and will give an inaccurate range. Again this can degrade the fix accuracy.

The signal can penetrate some solid surfaces, such as glass, GRP and canvas, and it is sometimes possible for a receiver antenna mounted inside the boat to work satisfactorily.

Selective Availability

Originally, civilian users had their signals deliberately degraded by the US military inducing a randomly varying error, known as selective availability, ensuring that accuracy was no better than 100 metres for 95% of the time. This selective availability has been switched off, but the US military may reintroduce it, without warning, at any time. This must...